Scientists transplant human photoreceptors to successfully recover daylight perception in mice

Transplantation of photoreceptor cells is a promising intervention that in the future could help recover vision in people with blinding diseases. A team of researchers developed a robust method to produce high numbers of human photoreceptor cells. The researchers show that such human photoreceptors can incorporate in bulk into partially degenerated mouse retinas. The incorporated photoreceptors developed characteristics of normal photoreceptors and allowed mice with damaged eyesight to detect daylight.

The new study represents a step forward in an effort to bring photoreceptor transplantations to patients with blinding diseases.

To massively increase the number of incorporated photoreceptors, the scientists optimized multiple critical factors. They established that the age of transplanted photoreceptors is decisive.

The team also found that the integration into the retina needs a longer time. 

The interaction with the remaining, undamaged cells in the mouse retina turned out to be a key factor. About 30% of the cells in the retina are other cells that support the work of photoreceptors. In this case, researchers clearly saw that the interaction of transplanted cells with host retinal cells was crucial for successful incorporation and maturation. Some of these remaining cells provided a scaffold for the new photoreceptors and helped them organize correctly.

To produce photoreceptors, the team used stem cells to grow mini-retinas in a laboratory dish.

Obtaining a pure population of photoreceptors is yet another challenge. To address it researchers developed a new stem cell line in which cone photoreceptor cells have special tags. These tags do not interfere with their function but allow us to robustly sort photoreceptors from the rest of the cells in the mini-retinas.

Such induced pluripotent stem cell lines provide a virtually unlimited source of photoreceptors and can potentially be used in future clinical applications.

In this study, the team focused on mice with partially degenerated retinas that lacked only one out of two types of photoreceptors. The mice had only damaged cones, which are responsible for daylight vision, a situation similar to several blinding diseases in human patients. 

https://www.jci.org/articles/view/154619

World's biggest giant bacteria that can be seen without a microscope

These thin vermicelli-like threads are revealed to be single bacterial cells!

The unusual size is notable because bacteria aren't usually visible without the assistance of microscope. It's 5,000 times bigger than most bacteria

For most bacteria, their DNA floats freely within the cytoplasm of their cells. This newly discovered species of bacteria keeps its DNA more organized. "The big surprise of the project was to realize that these genome copies that are spread throughout the whole cell are actually contained within a structure that has a membrane. "And this is very unexpected for a bacterium."

 It is a bacterium belonging to the genus Thiomargarita,. Scientists named it Ca. Thiomargarita magnifica.

 This is a  sulfur-oxidizing, carbon fixing bacterium and are important in mangrove eco systems . They contain membrane-bound compartments that contain DNA clusters . Scientists  dubbed these organelles "pepins," The bacteria contain three times more genes than most bacteria and hundreds of thousands of genome copies (polyploidy) that are spread throughout the entire cell.

In terms of metabolism, it does chemosynthesis, which is a process analogous to photosynthesis for plants.

Jean-Marie Volland et al, A centimeter-long bacterium with DNA contained in metabolically active membrane-bound organelles, Science (2022). DOI: 10.1126/science.abb3634. www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abb3634

Wearable antimicrobial copper nanomesh sticks to human skin, killin...

A team of researchers from the University of Tokyo, the Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology and the Center for Emergent Matter Science & Thin-Film Device Laboratory RIKEN 2-1 Hirosawa has developed a wearable antimicrobial nanomesh material that sticks to human skin, killing microbes nearly instantly. They have published their creation in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

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Diagnosing jaundice using tear fluids

Human tear fluids contain many proteins, metabolites, and other molecules whose concentrations change significantly with certain diseases. A research team has now developed a handy test kit for tears that can identify patients with jaundice. Their success is based on a hybrid sensor that simultaneously removes impurities from the sample. This approach could provide new methods for early detection and diagnosis based on complex bodily fluids, as the team reported in the journal Angewandte Chemie International Edition.

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How the first biomolecules could have been formed

The chemical precursors of present-day biomolecules could have formed not only in the deep sea at hydrothermal vents, but also in warm ponds on the Earth's surface. The chemical reactions that may have occurred in this "primordial soup" have now been reproduced in experiments by an international team led by researchers of Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Germany. They even found that one of the nucleobases, which represent the code of our genetic material, could have originated from the surface of our planet

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A newly identified stem cell regulator enables lifelong sperm produ...

Unlike women, who are born with all the eggs they'll ever have, men can continue to produce sperm throughout their adult lives. To do so, they require a constant renewal of spermatogonial stem cells, which give rise to sperm.

Breast cancer spreads at night

A new study shows that breast cancer metastases form more efficiently while patients are sleeping. This finding could significantly change the way cancer is diagnosed and treated in future.

Breast cancer is one of the most common forms of cancer, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Each year, around 2.3 million people worldwide contract the disease. If doctors detect breast cancer early enough, patients usually respond well to treatment. However, things become much more difficult if the cancer has already metastasised. Metastasis occurs when circulating cancer cells break away from the original tumour, travel through the body via blood vessels and form new tumours in other organs.

To date, cancer research has not paid much attention to the question of when tumours shed metastatic cells. Researchers previously assumed that tumours release such cells continuously. However, a new study by researchers at ETH Zurich, the University Hospital Basel and the University of Basel has now come to a surprising conclusion: circulating cancer cells that later form metastases mainly arise during the sleep phase of the affected individuals. The results of the study have just been published in the journal Nature.

Circadian rhythm-​regulated hormones control metastasis
When the affected person is asleep, the tumour awakens!

 The researchers found that the tumour generates more circulating cells when the organism is asleep. Cells that leave the tumour at night also divide more quickly and therefore have a higher potential to form metastases, compared to circulating cells that leave the tumour during the day.

This research shows that the escape of circulating cancer cells from the original tumour is controlled by hormones such as melatonin, which determine our rhythms of day and night.

The study indicates that the time in which tumour or blood samples are taken for diagnosis may influence the findings of oncologists. It was an accidental finding along these lines that first put the researchers on the right track. Some scientists work early in the morning or late in the evening; sometimes they’ll also analyse blood at unusual hours. The scientists were surprised to find that samples taken at different times of the day had very different levels of circulating cancer cells.

Another clue was the surprisingly high number of cancer cells found per unit of blood in mice compared to humans. The reason was that as nocturnal animals, mice sleep during the day, which is when scientists collect most of their samples.
These findings may indicate the need for healthcare professionals to systematically record the time at which they perform biopsies. 

The researchers’ next step will be to figure out how these findings can be incorporated into existing cancer treatments to optimise therapies. 

Zoi Diamantopoulou, Francesc Castro-Giner, Fabienne Dominique Schwab, Christiane Foerster, Massimo Saini, Selina Budinjas, Karin Strittmatter, Ilona Krol, Bettina Seifert, Viola Heinzelmann-Schwarz, Christian Kurzeder, Christoph Rochlitz, Marcus Vetter, Walter Paul Weber, Nicola Aceto. The metastatic spread of breast cancer accelerates during sleep. Nature, 2022; DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04875-y

Environmental factors predict risk of death: study

Along with high blood pressure, diabetes, and smoking, environmental factors such as air pollution are highly predictive of people's chances of dying, especially from heart attack and stroke, a new study shows.

the study showed that exposure to above average levels of outdoor air pollution increased risk of death by 20%, and risk of death from cardiovascular disease by 17%.

Using wood- or kerosene-burning stoves, not properly ventilated through a chimney, to cook food or heat the home also increasd overall risk of death (by 23% and 9%) and cardiovascular death risk (by 36% and 19%). Living far from specialty medical clinics and near busy roads also increased risk of death.

Publishing in the journal PLOS ONE online June 24, the findings come from personal and environmental health data collected from 50,045 mostly poor, rural villagers living in the northeast Golestan region of Iran. All study participants were over age 40 and agreed to have their health monitored during annual visits with researchers dating as far back as 2004.

Researchers say their latest investigation not only identifies environmental factors that pose the greatest risk to heart and overall health, but also adds much-needed scientific evidence from people in low- and middle -income countries

Spatial environmental factors predict cardiovascular and all-cause mortality: Results of the SPACE Study, PLoS ONE (2022).

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2022-06-environmental-factors-death....

Octopus brain and human brain share the same 'jumping genes'

The octopus is an exceptional organism with an extremely complex brain and cognitive abilities that are unique among invertebrates. So much so that in some ways it has more in common with vertebrates than with invertebrates. The neural and cognitive complexity of these animals could originate from a molecular analogy with the human brain, as discovered by a research paper recently published in BMC Biology.

The research shows that the same "jumping genes" are active both in the human brain and in the brain of two species, Octopus vulgaris, the common octopus, and Octopus bimaculoides, the Californian octopus. This discovery could help us understand the secret of the intelligence of these fascinating organisms.

Sequencing the human genome revealed as early as 2001 that over 45% of it is composed of sequences called transposons, so-called "jumping genes" that, through molecular copy-and-paste or cut-and-paste mechanisms, can "move" from one point to another of an individual's genome, shuffling or duplicating. In most cases, these mobile elements remain silent: they have no visible effects and have lost their ability to move. Some are inactive because they have, over generations, accumulated mutations; others are intact, but blocked by cellular defense mechanisms. From an evolutionary point of view, even these fragments and broken copies of transposons can still be useful, as "raw matter" that evolution can sculpt.

Among these mobile elements, the most relevant are those belonging to the so-called LINE (Long Interspersed Nuclear Elements) family, found in a hundred copies in the human genome and still potentially active. It has been traditionally thought that LINEs' activity was just a vestige of the past, a remnant of the evolutionary processes that involved these mobile elements, but in recent years new evidence emerged showing that their activity is finely regulated in the brain. There are many scientists who believe that LINE transposons are associated with cognitive abilities such as learning and memory: they are particularly active in the hippocampus, the most important structure of our brain for the neural control of learning processes.

The octopus' genome, like ours, is rich in "jumping genes," most of which are inactive. Focusing on the transposons still capable of copy-and-paste, the researchers identified an element of the LINE family in parts of the brain crucial for the cognitive abilities of these animals. The discovery  was made possible thanks to next generation sequencing techniques, which were used to analyze the molecular composition of the genes active in the nervous system of the octopus.

The discovery of an element of the LINE family, active in the brain of the two octopuses species, is very significant because it adds support to the idea that these elements have a specific function that goes beyond copy-and-paste.

The brain of the octopus is functionally analogous in many of its characteristics to that of mammals. For this reason, also, the identified LINE element represents a very interesting candidate to study to improve our knowledge on the evolution of intelligence.

“Identification of LINE retrotransposons and long non-coding RNAs expressed in the octopus brain” by Giuseppe Petrosino, Giovanna Ponte, Massimiliano Volpe, Ilaria Zarrella, Federico Ansaloni, Concetta Langella, Giulia Di Cristina, Sara Finaurini, Monia T. Russo, Swaraj Basu, Francesco Musacchia, Filomena Ristoratore, Dinko Pavlinic, Vladimir Benes, Maria I. Ferrante, Caroline Albertin, Oleg Simakov, Stefano Gustincich, Graziano Fiorito and Remo Sanges, 18 May 2022, BMC Biology.
DOI: 10.1186/s12915-022-01303-5

Monkeypox found to be evolving at a faster rate than expected

A team of researchers  has found that the monkeypox virus has been evolving at a faster rate than expected. In their paper published in the journal Nature Medicine, the researchers describe their genetic study of the virus collected from 15 samples

Monkeypox is a double-stranded DNA virus from the same genus as smallpox, and it mostly infects people in Africa. Scientist have known of its existence since the 1950s. Despite its name, the virus is more commonly found in rodents than monkeys. Prior research has shown that there are two main varieties of monkeypox: West African and Congo Basin—the former is far less deadly and is the clade that has infected several thousand people outside Africa. Prior research has also shown that viruses like monkeypox typically only mutate once or twice in a given year.

In this new effort, the researchers collected samples from 15 patients and subjected them to genetic analysis to learn more about how quickly the virus is evolving. They found the virus has mutated at a rate six to 12 times as high as was expected. The researchers suggest the sudden accelerated rate of mutation in the virus may be a sign that the virus has developed a new way to infect people—currently, it is believed to move from person to person through close contact with open lesions, through body fluids or by airborne droplets.

Joana Isidro et al, Phylogenomic characterization and signs of microevolution in the 2022 multi-country outbreak of monkeypox virus, Nature Medicine (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41591-022-01907-y

In studying the mutations, the researchers found signs suggesting that some of the mutations may have been due to exposure to the human immune system, most particularly enzymes of a type called APOBEC3—they kill viruses by inciting mistakes during copying of genetic code. If some of the viruses survived such an attack and passed on their genes, they would have given future generations a leg up against the human immune system. And that could explain why the virus has been mutating more rapidly than expected. The researchers also note that the virus may have been circulating at low levels in human communities or spreading among animals in other countries. They also note that the accelerated rate of evolution could be a response to the crackdown that ensued during the monkeypox outbreak in 2017.

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Virus discovery offers clues about origins of complex life

The first discovery of viruses infecting a group of microbes that may include the ancestors of all complex life has been found, researchers report in Nature Microbiology. The discovery offers tantalizing clues about the origins of complex life and suggests new directions for exploring the hypothesis that viruses were essential to the evolution of humans and other complex life forms.

There is a well-supported hypothesis that all complex life forms such as humans, starfish and trees—which feature cells with a nucleus and are called eukaryotes—originated when archaea and bacteria merged to form a hybrid organism. Recent research suggests the first eukaryotes are direct descendants of so-called A.... The latest research sheds light on how viruses, too, might have played a role in this billions-year-old history.

This study is opening a door to better resolving the origin of eukaryotes and understanding the role of viruses in the ecology and evolution of Asgard archaea. There is a hypothesis that viruses may have contributed to the emergence of complex cellular life.

There is a hypothesis called viral eukaryogenesis. It suggests that, in addition to bacteria and archaea, viruses might have contributed some genetic component to the development of eukaryotes. This latest discovery does not settle that debate, but it does offer some interesting clues.

Part1

The newly discovered viruses that infect currently living Asgard archaea do have some features similar to viruses that infect eukaryotes, including the ability to copy their own DNA and hijack protein modification systems of their hosts. The fact that these recovered Asgard viruses display characteristics of both viruses that infect eukaryotes and prokaryotes, which have cells without a nucleus, makes them unique since they are not exactly like those that infect other archaea or complex life forms.

The most exciting thing is they are completely new types of viruses that are different from those that we've seen before in archaea and eukaryotes, infecting our microbial relatives.

The Asgard archaea, which probably evolved more than 2 billion years ago and whose descendents are still living, have been discovered in deep sea sediments and hot springs around the world, but so far only one strain has been successfully grown in the lab. To identify them, scientists collect their genetic material from the environment and then piece together their genomes. In this latest study, the researchers scanned the Asgard genomes for repeating DNA regions known as CRISPR arrays, which contain small pieces of viral DNA that can be precisely matched to viruses that previously infected these microbes. These genetic "fingerprints" allowed them to identify these stealthy viral invaders that infect organisms with key roles in the complex origin story of eukaryotes.

We are now starting to understand the implication and role that viruses could have had in the eukaryogenesis puzzle.

Brett Baker, Genomes of six viruses that infect Asgard archaea from deep-sea sediments, Nature Microbiology (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41564-022-01150-8. www.nature.com/articles/s41564-022-01150-8

Part 2

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Oceans saved us, now we can return the favour

Humanity must heal oceans made sick by climate change, pollution and overfishing in order to rescue marine life and save ourselves, experts warned ahead of a major UN conference.

By absorbing—decade after decade—a quarter of CO2 pollution and more than 90 percent of excess heat from global warming, oceans have kept Earth's terrestrial surface liveable.

Our species has returned the favor by dumping mountains of plastic waste into the sea, emptying the deep blue of big fish, and poisoning coastlines with toxic chemicals and agricultural runoff that create dead zones bereft of oxygen.

"If we don't do the right things now, we might end up with a dead oceans”

Functional connections between different brain networks can predict a person's age

Neuroscientists have been trying to understand for decades how the human brain changes over the lifespan. This could ultimately help to devise more effective treatments for neurological and cognitive disorders primarily observed in the elderly.

Researchers  have recently carried out a study investigating the relationship between age and the functional coupling between specific neural networks in the brain. Their paper, published in Psychology and Aging, shows that the connectivity between certain brain regions can predict people's chronological age with a high level of accuracy.

The differences in cognitive functioning among people of different ages are well documented. The idea that these differences are associated with changes in brain connectivity (i.e., the way in which brain regions and networks communicate with each other) was introduced and discussed in many neuroscience papers.

The present one deals with the Q:Can we use patterns of brain connectivity when people are not doing any tasks to predict their age?

Scientists analyzed data collected from a large cohort of 547 participants between 18 and 88 years old, part of a publicly available brain imaging dataset compiled by the Cambridge Centre for Aging and Neuroscience (CamCAN). By analyzing these data, they  firstly investigated whether connectivity between the executive control network (ECN) and default mode network (DMN) regions in the brain can predict age.

To do this, they used a well-established statistical technique called multiple regression analysis. They further examined how connectivity between ECN, DMN, and another region, the salience network (SN)—which is thought to mitigate how ECN and DMN regions talk to each other—impacts the strength of the connections between ECN and DMN areas.

Part 1

The analyses carried out now yielded many interesting findings. Most notably, the results showed that the functional connectivity between large-scale brain networks can predict age with good accuracy and that it varies across the lifespan. More specifically, they found that the connectivity between ECN and DMN brain regions accounts for a significant portion of age variability.

Interestingly, the researchers found that when they also included the SN (a set of brain regions that selects salient external or internal stimuli for the brain to focus its attention on) in their analyses, they could predict a person's age with even greater accuracy. In the future, their work could help to better understand the brain connectivity  patterns associated with the decline in cognitive abilities observed in older age.

Evangelia G. Chrysikou et al, Large-scale network connectivity as a predictor of age: Evidence across the adult lifespan from the Cam-CAN data set, Psychology and Aging (2022). DOI: 10.1037/pag0000683

Part 2

Bacteria's shapeshifting behaviour clue to new treatments for urinary tract infections

Urinary tract infections are both very common and potentially very dangerous. Thousands of women  suffer from a UTI in their lifetime, and most of these women will have an infection requiring treatment with antibiotics. 

Around 80 percent of UTIs are caused by uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC), which is increasingly resistant to antibiotics. E. coli-related death due to antimicrobial resistance is the leading cause of bacterial fatalities worldwide.

In a bid to aid discovery of new treatment options, researchers are using state-of-the-art microscopy to pinpoint how these bacteria spread and multiply.

The latest research examined the shapeshifting behavior of UPEC. During a UTI infection cycle, the bacteria form spaghetti-like filaments hundreds of times their normal lengths before reverting to their original form.

The study, which is published in Nature Communications, used a human bladder cell infection model to generate the filaments, and look at their reversal back to rod shape.

While we don't fully understand why they do this extreme lifestyle make-over, we know they must revert to their original size before they can reinfect new bladder cells.

Researchers  used advanced microscopy to follow two key cell division proteins and their localisation dynamics during reversal. We found that the normal rules for regulation of cell division in bacteria does not fully apply in filaments.

By giving the first clues into how the reversal of filamentation is regulated during infection, scientists may be laying the foundation for identifying new ways to combat UTIs.

 The long filaments formed by the bacteria appeared to break open the infected human cells, through a previously unknown mechanism called infection-related filamentation (IRF).

The devastating eruption of these bacteria from the cells of the bladder that they invade probably contributes to the extensive damage and pain experienced during a UTI.

If scientists identify why and how the bacteria shifts their shapes this enables alternative treatments or preventions.

 Bill Söderström et al, Assembly dynamics of FtsZ and DamX during infection-related filamentation and division in uropathogenic E. coli, Nature Communications (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31378-1

Life in the Earth's interior is as productive as in some ocean waters

Terrestrial and marine habitats have been considered the ecosystems with the highest primary production on Earth by far. Microscopic algae in the upper layers of the oceans and plants on land bind atmospheric carbon (CO₂) and produce plant material driven by photosynthesis. Since sunlight does not penetrate into the subsurface, hardly any such primary production is to be expected.

However, genetic analyses of microorganisms in groundwater have indicated that even here many microorganisms are capable of primary production. In the absence of light, they must obtain the energy from oxidizing inorganic compounds, like from reduced sulfur of the surrounding rocks. However, the role of primary producers in the subsurface had never been confirmed before.

Groundwater is one of our most important sources of clean drinking water. The groundwater environment of the carbonate aquifers alone, which is the focus of the study, provides about ten percent of the world's drinking water. With this in mind, the researchers carried out measurements of microbial microorganism carbon fixation in a subsurface aquifer, 5 to 90 meters belowground.

Based on the measured carbon fixation rates, the researchers conservatively extrapolated global primary production in carbonate groundwater to be 110 million metric tons of carbon per year. Collectively, the net primary productivity of approximately 66 percent of the planet's groundwater reservoirs would total 260 million metric tons of carbon per year, which is approximately 0.5 percent that of marine systems and 0.25 percent of global net primary production estimates.

Since there is very little energy available in these nutrient-poor and permanently dark habitats, even a small percentage of the global primary production is a surprise.

The researchers also sought to identify the microorganisms responsible for fixing carbon and generating new biomass within the aquifer. Metagenomic analyses point to a highly abundant microorganism not closely related to previously studied bacteria, within an uncharacterized order of Nitrospiria. As food, these organisms are thought to form the basis of life for the entire groundwater ecosystem with all of its thousands of microbial species, similar to the role algae play in the oceans or plants on land.

Kirsten Küsel, Carbon fixation rates in groundwater similar to those in oligotrophic marine systems, Nature Geoscience (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41561-022-00968-5. www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-00968-5

Tearless onions

How are they created and do they actually work?

Slicing through an onion damages cells, causing enzymes and other substances that are normally kept apart to spill out and react together. In standard onions the result is a sulphur-containing chemical called syn-propanethial-S-oxide, which resembles tear gas. This forms an irritating acid when it comes into contact with water in your eyes.

Some research groups have created onions that are genetically modified to lack an enzyme that leads to syn-propanethial-S-oxide, but these have not yet made it to market.

The tearless onions – Sunions – now in shops were created by repeatedly cross-breeding milder varieties containing lower levels of pyruvate. This substance is a by-product of the same reaction that forms syn-propanethial-S-oxide and also has a good measure of pungency.

Turning methane into methanol under ambient conditions using light

An international team of researchers has developed a fast and economical method of converting methane, or natural gas, into liquid methanol at ambient temperature and pressure. The method takes place under continuous flow over a photo-catalytic material using visible light to drive the conversion.

To help observe how the process works and how selective it is, the researchers used neutron scattering at the VISION instrument at Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Spallation Neutron Source.

The method involves a continuous flow of methane/oxygen-saturated water over a novel metal-organic framework (MOF) catalyst. The MOF is porous and contains different components that each have a role in absorbing light, transferring electrons and activating and bringing together methane and oxygen. The liquid methanol is easily extracted from the water. Such a process has commonly been considered "a holy grail of catalysis" and is an area of focus for research supported by the U.S. Department of Energy. Details of the team's findings, titled "Direct photo-oxidation of methane to methanol over a mono-iron hydroxyl site," are published in Nature Materials.

 Sihai Yang, Direct photo-oxidation of methane to methanol over a mono-iron hydroxyl site, Nature Materials (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41563-022-01279-1. www.nature.com/articles/s41563-022-01279-1

Scientists discover norovirus and other 'stomach viruses' can spread through saliva

A class of viruses known to cause severe diarrheal diseases—including the one famous for widespread outbreaks on cruise ships—can grow in the salivary glands of mice and spread through their saliva, scientists have discovered. The findings show that a new route of transmission exists for these common viruses, which afflict billions of people each year worldwide and can be deadly.

The transmission of these so-called enteric viruses through saliva suggests that coughing, talking, sneezing, sharing food and utensils, and even kissing all have the potential for spreading the viruses. The new findings still need to be confirmed in human studies.

The findings, which appear in the journal Nature, could lead to better ways to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases caused by these viruses, potentially saving lives.

Researchers have known for some time that enteric viruses, such as noroviruses and rotaviruses, can spread by eating food or drinking liquids contaminated with fecal matter containing these viruses. Enteric viruses were thought to bypass the salivary gland and target the intestines, exiting later through feces. Although some scientists have suspected there may be another route of transmission, this theory remained largely untested until now.

Now researchers will need to confirm that salivary transmission of enteric viruses is possible in humans. If they find that it is, the researchers said, they may also discover that this route of transmission is even more common than the conventional route. A finding such as that could help explain, they said, why the high number of enteric virus infections each year worldwide fails to adequately account for fecal contamination as the sole transmission route.

https://www.mlo-online.com/disease/infectious-disease/article/21272...

https://researchnews.cc/news/14014/Scientists-discover-norovirus-an...

Asynchronous Reality — where everything remains real except the flow of time

A  new COVID-19 antibody detection method that does not require a blood sample

A key challenge in limiting the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is identifying infected individuals. Now, investigators  have developed a new antibody-based method for the rapid and reliable detection of SARS-CoV-2 that does not require a blood sample.

The ineffective identification of SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals has severely limited the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the high rate of asymptomatic infections (16%–38%) has exacerbated this situation. The predominant detection method to date collects samples by swabbing the nose and throat. However, the application of this method is limited by its long detection time (4–6 hours), high cost, and requirement for specialized equipment and medical personnel, particularly in resource-limited countries.

An alternative and complementary method for the confirmation of COVID-19 infection involves the detection of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies. Testing strips based on gold nanoparticles are currently in widespread use for point-of-care testing in many countries. They produce sensitive and reliable results within 10–20 minutes, but they require blood samples collected via a finger prick using a lancing device. This is painful and increases the risk of infection or cross-contamination, and the used kit components present a potential biohazard risk.

To develop a minimally invasive detection assay that would avoid these drawbacks, researchers explored the idea of sampling and testing the interstitial fluid (ISF), which is located in the epidermis and dermis layers of human skin. Although the antibody levels in the ISF are approximately 15%–25% of those in blood, it was still feasible that anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM/IgG antibodies could be detected and that ISF could act as a direct substitute for blood sampling."

After demonstrating that ISF could be suitable for antibody detection, the researchers developed an innovative approach to both sample and test the ISF. They first developed biodegradable porous microneedles made of polylactic acid that draws up the ISF from human skin. 

Then, they constructed a paper-based immunoassay biosensor for the detection of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies. By integrating these two elements, the researchers created a compact patch capable of on-site detection of the antibodies within 3 minutes (result from in vitro tests).

This novel detection device has great potential that is safe and acceptable to patients for the rapid screening of COVID-19 and many other infectious diseases. It holds promise for use in many countries regardless of their wealth, which is a key aim for the global management of infectious disease.

Anti SARS CoV 2 IgM/IgG antibodies detection using a patch sensor containing porous microneedles and a paper based immunoassay, Scientific Reports (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14725-6

Could carbon monoxide foam help fight inflammation?

Carbon monoxide is best known as a potentially deadly gas. However, in small doses it also has beneficial qualities: It has been shown to reduce inflammation and can help stimulate tissue regeneration.

We’ve known for years that carbon monoxide can impart beneficial effects in all sorts of disease pathologies, when given as an inhaled gas. However, it’s been a challenge to use it in the clinic, for a number of reasons related to safe and reproducible administration, and health care workers’ concerns, which has led to people wanting to find other ways to administer it.

A team of researchers  has now devised a novel way to deliver carbon monoxide to the body while bypassing its potentially hazardous effects. Inspired by techniques used in molecular gastronomy, they were able to incorporate carbon monoxide into stable foams that can be delivered to the digestive tract.

In a study of mice, the researchers showed that these foams reduced inflammation of the colon and helped to reverse acute liver failure caused by acetaminophen overdose. The new technique, described earlier this week in a Science Translational Medicine paper, could also be used to deliver other therapeutic gases, the researchers say.

The ability to deliver a gas opens up whole new opportunities of how we think of therapeutics. We generally don’t think of a gas as a therapeutic that you would take orally (or that could be administered rectally), so this offers an exciting new way to think about how we can help patients.

Since the late 1990s, researchers have been studying the therapeutic effects of low doses of carbon monoxide. The gas has been shown to impart beneficial effects in preventing rejection of transplanted organs, reducing tumor growth, and modulating inflammation and acute tissue injury.

When inhaled at high concentrations, carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin in the blood and prevents the body from obtaining enough oxygen, which can lead to serious health effects and even death. However, at lower doses, it has beneficial effects such as reducing inflammation and promoting tissue regeneration.

To tackle the challenge of delivering a gas, researchers  came up with the idea of incorporating the gas into a foam, much the way that chefs use carbon dioxide to create foams infused with fruits, vegetables, or other flavours.

Part 1

Culinary foams are usually created by adding a thickening or gelling agent to a liquid or a solid that has been pureed, and then either whipping it to incorporate air or using a specialized siphon that injects gases such as carbon dioxide or compressed air.

The team created a modified siphon that could be attached to any kind of gas cannister, allowing them to incorporate carbon monoxide into their foam. To create the foams, they used food additives such as alginate, methyl cellulose, and maltodextrin. Xantham gum was also added to stabilize the foams. By varying the amount of xantham gum, the researchers could control how long it would take for the gas to be released once the foams were administered.

After showing that they could control the timing of the gas release in the body, the researchers decided to test the foams for a few different applications. First, they studied two types of topical applications, analogous to applying a cream to soothe itchy or inflamed areas. In a study of mice, they found that delivering the foam rectally reduced inflammation caused by colitis or radiation-induced proctitis (inflammation of the rectum that can be caused by radiation treatment for cervical or prostate cancer).

Current treatments for colitis and other inflammatory conditions such as Crohn’s disease usually involve drugs that suppress the immune system, which can make patients more susceptible to infections. Treating those conditions with a foam that can be applied directly to inflamed tissue offers a potential alternative, or complementary approach, to those immunosuppressive treatments, the researchers say. While the foams were given rectally in this study, it could also be possible to deliver them orally, the researchers say.

https://news.mit.edu/2022/carbon-monoxide-foam-inflammation-0629

Part2

Blood pressure e-tattoo promises continuous monitoring

100 Fun Facts collected from Google's "i'm feeling curious" feature

Study explores coevolution of mammals and their lice

According to a new study, the first louse to take up residence on a mammalian host likely started out as a parasite of birds. That host-jumping event tens of millions of years ago began the long association between mammals and lice, setting the stage for their coevolution and offering more opportunities for the lice to spread to other mammals.

Reported in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution, the study compared the genomes and family trees of lice and their mammalian hosts. The effort revealed that the two trees share a lot of parallel branches and twigs. Those branching points—where one group of mammals began diverging into new forms—often were echoed in the genomes of the lice that parasitized those mammals, the researchers reported.

In this paper, researchers used data from genome sequencing to show that a major newly recognized group of mammalian lice, including lice of humans, originated on the common ancestor of Afrotheria, a group of mammals primarily of African distribution that includes elephants, hyraxes and elephant shrews, among others. These lice then went on to colonize other major groups of mammals through the process of host switching.

Lice fall into two groups based on their eating habits. Chewing lice munch on skin or secretions, while sucking lice pierce the skin to consume the blood of their hosts. Both types feed on mammals, but sucking lice are exclusive to mammals.

Recent genomic studies revealed that sucking lice are closely related to two groups of chewing lice that also feed on mammals, and "each of the major groups within this newly identified lineage occurs on at least one member of Afrotheria.

Kevin Johnson, Phylogenomics reveals the origin of mammal lice out of Afrotheria, Nature Ecology & Evolution (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41559-022-01803-1. www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01803-1

8,000 kilometers per second: Star with the shortest orbital period around black hole discovered

Researchers have discovered the fastest known star, which travels around a black hole in record time. The star, S4716, orbits Sagittarius A*, the black hole in the center of our Milky Way, in four years and reaches a speed of around 8,000 kilometers per second. S4716 comes as close as 100 AU (astronomical unit) to the black hole—a small distance by astronomical standards. One AU corresponds to 149,597,870 kilometers. The study has been published in The Astrophysical Journal.

Florian Peißker et al, Observation of S4716—a Star with a 4 yr Orbit around Sgr A*, The Astrophysical Journal (2022). DOI: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac752f

LHCb discovers three new exotic particles: the pentaquark and the first-ever pair of tetraquarks

The international LHCb collaboration at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) has observed three never-before-seen particles: a new kind of pentaquark and the first-ever pair of tetraquarks, which includes a new type of tetraquark. The findings, presented recently at a CERN seminar, add three new exotic members to the growing list of new hadrons found at the LHC. They will help physicists better understand how quarks bind together into these composite particles.

Quarks are elementary particles and come in six flavors: up, down, charm, strange, top and bottom. They usually combine together in groups of twos and threes to form hadrons such as the protons and neutrons that make up atomic nuclei. More rarely, however, they can also combine into four-quark and five-quark particles, or "tetraquarks" and "pentaquarks." These exotic hadrons were predicted by theorists at the same time as conventional hadrons, about six decades ago, but only relatively recently, in the past 20 years, have they been observed by LHCb and other experiments.

Most of the exotic hadrons discovered in the past two decades are tetraquarks or pentaquarks containing a charm quark and a charm antiquark, with the remaining two or three quarks being an up, down or strange quark or their antiquarks. But in the past two years, LHCb has discovered different kinds of exotic hadrons. Two years ago, the collaboration discovered a tetraquark made up of two charm quarks and two charm antiquarks, and two "open-charm" tetraquarks consisting of a charm antiquark, an up quark, a down quark and a strange antiquark. And last year it found the first-ever instance of a "double open-charm" tetraquark with two charm quarks and an up and a down antiquark. Open charm means that the particle contains a charm quark without an equivalent antiquark.

The discoveries announced now by the LHCb collaboration include new kinds of exotic hadrons. The first kind, observed in an analysis of "decays" of negatively charged B mesons, is a pentaquark made up of a charm quark and a charm antiquark and an up, a down and a strange quark. It is the first pentaquark found to contain a strange quark. The finding has a whopping statistical significance of 15 standard deviations, far beyond the 5 standard deviations that are required to claim the observation of a particle in particle physics.

The second kind is a doubly electrically charged tetraquark. It is an open-charm tetraquark composed of a charm quark, a strange antiquark, and an up quark and a down  antiquark, and it was spotted together with its neutral counterpart in a joint analysis of decays of positively charged and neutral B mesons. The new tetraquarks, observed with a statistical significance of 6.5 (doubly charged particle) and 8 (neutral particle) standard deviations, represent the first time a pair of tetraquarks has been observed.

https://lhcb-outreach.web.cern.ch/2022/07/05/observation-of-a-stran...

Defining the Anthropocene: Radioactive traces in ocean materials mark the start of the modern age

For the first time, researchers can offer a strong quantitative definition for the start of what is known as the Anthropocene, thanks to traces of radioactive material in marine sediments and corals. The Anthropocene period is considered important by researchers in many fields as it effectively marks a milestone for humanity's impact on Earth's environment and ecosystem.

Researchers combined records of nuclear fallout from atomic tests present in ocean sediments and coral skeletons. These records show a clear change in the ocean environment before, during and after a period of worldwide atomic testing, which the researchers have defined as marking the beginning of the Anthropocene.

 Yusuke Yokoyama et al, Plutonium isotopes in the North Western Pacific sediments coupled with radiocarbon in corals recording precise timing of the Anthropocene, Scientific Reports (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14179-w

Scientists unravel the key to colon cancer relapse after chemotherapy

Approximately 1 in 25 people will develop colon cancer during their lifetime and nearly 2 million cases new cases are diagnosed worldwide each year. Chemotherapy is commonly used to treat colon cancer. While this treatment is initially effective in most cases, many patients relapse after treatment.

This study reveals that some tumor cells remain in a latent state and, after chemotherapy, they are reactivated, thus causing relapse. Their study is published in Nature Cancer.

In short, scientists have discovered that tumor stem cells with Mex3a protein activity remain in a state of latency that confers resistance to chemotherapy. Due to the action of the drugs used in this treatment, these cells adopt a state similar to the embryonic one, and sometime after chemotherapy, when the environment is more favorable, they are reactivated to regenerate the tumor in all its complexity. These persistent cells are responsible for cancer relapse after treatment.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s43018-022-00402-0

Physicists see electron whirlpools for the first time

Though they are discrete particles, water molecules flow collectively as liquids, producing streams, waves, whirlpools, and other classic fluid phenomena.

Not so with electricity. While an electric current is also a construct of distinct particles—in this case, electrons—the particles are so small that any collective behavior among them is drowned out by larger influences as electrons pass through ordinary metals. But, in certain materials and under specific conditions, such effects fade away, and electrons can directly influence each other. In these instances, electrons can flow collectively like a fluid.

Now, physicists  have observed electrons flowing in vortices, or whirlpools—a hallmark of fluid flow that theorists predicted electrons should exhibit, but that has never been seen until now.

It's a clear signature  where electrons behave as a fluid, not as individual particles.

The observations, reported in the journal Nature, could inform the design of more efficient electronics.

When electrons go in a fluid state, [energy] dissipation drops, and that's of interest in trying to design low-power electronics. This new observation is another step in that direction.

Eli Zeldov, Direct observation of vortices in an electron fluid, Nature (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04794-y. www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04794-y

Mathematical calculations show that quantum communication across interstellar space should be possible

A team of physicists  has used mathematical calculations to show that quantum communications across interstellar space should be possible. In their paper published in the journal Physical Review D, the group describes their calculations and also the possibility of extraterrestrial beings attempting to communicate with us using such signaling.

Over the past several years, scientists have been investigating the possibility of using quantum communications as a highly secure form of message transmission. Prior research has shown that it would be nearly impossible to intercept such messages without detection. In this new effort, the researchers wondered if similar types of communications might be possible across interstellar space. To find out, they used math that describes that movement of X-rays across a medium, such as those that travel between the stars. More specifically, they looked to see if their calculations could show the degree of decoherence that might occur during such a journey.

With quantum communications, engineers are faced with quantum particles that lose some or all of their unique characteristics as they interact with obstructions in their path—they have been found to be quite delicate, in fact. Such events are known as decoherence, and engineers working to build quantum networks have been devising ways to overcome the problem. Prior research has shown that the space between the stars is pretty clean. But is it clean enough for quantum communications? The math shows that it is. Space is so clean, in fact, that X-ray photons could travel hundreds of thousands of light years without becoming subject to decoherence—and that includes gravitational interference from astrophysical bodies. They noted in their work that optical and microwave bands would work equally well.

The researchers noted that because quantum communication is possible across the galaxy, if other intelligent beings exist in the Milky Way, they could already be trying to communicate with us using such technology and we could begin looking for them. They also suggest that quantum teleportation across interstellar space should be possible.

Arjun Berera et al, Viability of quantum communication across interstellar distances, Physical Review D (2022). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.105.123033

Scientists discover how first quasars in universe formed

The mystery of how the first quasars in the universe formed—something that has baffled scientists for nearly 20 years—has now been solved by a team of astrophysicists whose findings are published in Nature.

The existence of more than 200 quasars powered by supermassive balckholes less than a billion years after the Big Bang had remained one of the outstanding problems in astrophysics because it was never fully understood how they formed so early.

 Daniel Whalen, Turbulent cold flows gave birth to the first quasars, Nature (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04813-y. www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04813-y

Daniel Whalen et al, Revealing the origin of the first supermassive black holes, Nature (2022). DOI: 10.1038/d41586-022-01560-y , www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01560-y

**

How a shape-shifting receptor influences cell growth

Receptors found on cell surfaces bind to hormones, proteins, and other molecules, helping cells respond to their environment. MIT chemists have now discovered how one of these receptors changes its shape when it binds to its target, and how those changes trigger cells to grow and proliferate.

This receptor, known as epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), is overexpressed in many types of cancer and is the target of several cancer drugs. These drugs often work well at first, but tumors can become resistant to them. Understanding the mechanism of these receptors better may help researchers design drugs that can evade that resistance.

Thinking about more general mechanisms to target EGFR is an exciting new direction, and gives you a new avenue to think about possible therapies that may not evolve resistance as easily.

The EGF receptor is one of many receptors that help control cell growth. Found on most types of mammalian epithelial cells, which line body surfaces and organs, it can respond to several types of growth factors in addition to EGF. Some types of cancer, especially lung cancer and glioblastoma, overexpress the EGF receptor, which can lead to uncontrolled growth.

Like most cell receptors, the EGFR spans the cell membrane. An extracellular region of the receptor interacts with its target molecule (also called a ligand); a transmembrane section is embedded within the membrane; and an intracellular section interacts with cellular machinery that controls growth pathways.

The extracellular portion of the receptor has been analyzed in detail, but the transmembrane and intracellular sections have been difficult to study because they are more disordered and can't be crystallized.

Part 1

Scientists set out to try to learn more about those lesser-known structures. They embedded the proteins in a special type of self-assembling membrane called a nanodisc, which mimics the cell membrane. Then, they used single molecule FRET (fluorescence resonance energy transfer) to study how the conformation of the receptor changes when it binds to EGF.

FRET is commonly used to measure tiny distances between two fluorescent molecules. The researchers labeled the nanodisc membrane and the end of the intracellular tail of the protein with two different fluorophores, which allowed them to measure the distance between the protein tail and the cell membrane, under a variety of circumstances.

To their surprise, the researchers found that EGF binding led to a major change in the conformation of the receptor. Most models of receptor signaling involve interaction of multiple transmembrane helices to bring about large-scale conformational changes, but the EGF receptor, which has only a single helical segment within the membrane, appears to undergo such a change without interacting with other receptor molecules.

To learn more about how this shape change would affect the receptor's function,  they did computer simulations of molecular interactions. This kind of modeling, known as molecular dynamics, can model how a molecular system changes over time.

The modeling showed that when the receptor binds to EGF, the extracellular segment of the receptor stands up vertically, and when the receptor is not bound, it lies flat against the cell membrane. Similar to a hinge closing, when the receptor falls flat, it tilts the transmembrane segment and pulls the intracellular segment closer to the membrane. This blocks the intracellular region of the protein from being able to interact with the machinery needed to launch cell growth. EGF binding makes those regions more available, helping to activate growth signaling pathways.

The researchers also used their model to discover that positively charged amino acids in the intracellular segment, near the cell membrane, are key to these interactions. When the researchers mutated those amino acids, switching them from charged to neutral, ligand binding no longer activated the receptor.

The researchers also found that cetuximab, a drug that binds to the EGF receptor, prevents this conformational change from occurring. 

 Nature Communications (2022). DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6564353

Part 2

**

New study appears to answer one of Formula 1's oldest questions: Which is more important—car and team, or driver?

Which is more important to driving success in Formula 1, driver, or team and machine? A new eight-season-long study out recently, following this weekend's exciting British Grand Prix, finds surprisingly the answer is not as much to do with the car as you might expect.

There is a long-held belief, the so-called '80-20 rule' in F1 that the car/team are responsible for 80% of race success, while the skill of the driver only accounts for 20%.

What the researchers found, however, is that the car and team's input has been greatly overestimated. Rather than 80%, it is closer to 20%. The driver's input accounts for roughly 15%.

The biggest factor is more nuanced and it's the interaction between the driver and team which accounts for 30-40%. Random factors that occur during the race make up the rest.

These findings are particularly validating for drivers, as it shows they do not just drive the cars but also provide valuable input and feedback on the development of the cars. More skilled drivers improve the return to team technology and vice-versa. After all, F1 cars do not drive themselves and drivers cannot ply their trade without an F1 car. The 80-20 rule vastly underestimates the role of the driver, given the critical complementarity between driver and team.

 Race to the Podium: Separating and Conjoining the Car and Driver in F1 Racing, Applied Economics (2022). DOI: 10.1080/00036846.2022.2083068

Chemists find a contrary effect: How diluting with water makes a solution firm

In Science, researchers have published a study on new phase transitions of solutions and gels in water, which seem to go against the basic principles of chemistry.

In chemistry, a hydrogel changes to a liquid by diluting it with water. For the reverse transition, you increase the hydrogel concentration. However,  researchers accidentally discovered that their liquid solution turned into a hydrogel when diluted. This phenomenon hadn't been researched or described before and could have consequences in many areas in chemistry and biology.

The research focuses on the formation of certain hydrogels. This means that it starts with an aqueous solution of, in this case, two substances (a surfactant and a monomer). The research shows that a gel is formed at a specific ratio of these two substances in water. This gel is formed by long, supramolecular networks composed of both substances. The amounts of these substances in water (the concentrations) also determine where the phase transition of the gel formation is located. When decreasing the concentration without changing the ratio between the two components, the gel dissolves and becomes liquid. So far, this is familiar territory.

What is extraordinary, however, is that if the solution is diluted even further, a gel once again forms. Other supramolecular structures now form and it becomes a hydrogel again. And if it is then diluted even further, it becomes a liquid again. The paper carefully examined what the correct proportions of the active substances should be and at which concentrations the phase transitions take place. These transitions are also fully reversible. If concentrations are increased, the transitions from liquid to gel to liquid to gel occur at the same points. This phenomenon should be present in other fields, such as biology, but has never been researched and documented before.

Lu Su et al, Dilution-induced gel-sol-gel-sol transitions by competitive supramolecular pathways in water, Science (2022). DOI: 10.1126/science.abn3438. www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn3438

Matthew J. Webber, Less is more when forming gels by dilution, Science (2022). DOI: 10.1126/science.abo7656 , www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abo7656

Researchers discover brain pathway that helps to explain light's effect on mood

From changes in daylight across seasons to the artificial lighting choices in workplaces, it's clear that the quantity and quality of light that a person encounters can significantly impact mood. Now scientists know why.

In a new study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, a  research team used functional MRI to reveal how light-intensity signals reach the brain, and how brain structures involved in mood process those signals. The study demonstrated that some regions of the cerebral cortex involved in cognitive processing and mood show sensitivity for light intensity.

The discovery has implications for understanding mood problems like seasonal affective disorder and major depressive disorders, as well as how to treat them.

Identifying this pathway and understanding its function might directly promote development of approaches to treat depression, either by pharmacological manipulations or non-invasive brain stimulation in selected nodes of the pathway or with targeted bright-light therapy.

Shai Sabbah et al, Luxotonic signals in human prefrontal cortex as a possible substrate for effects of light on mood and cognition, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2022). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2118192119

Scientists see life-saving potential in spider venom

Building blocks for RNA-based life abound at center of our galaxy

Nitriles, a class of organic molecules with a cyano group—that is, a carbon atom bound with a triple unsaturated bond to a nitrogen atom—are typically toxic. But paradoxically, they are also a key precursor for molecules essential for life, such as ribonucleotides, composed of the nucleobases or "letters" A, U, C, and G joined to a ribose and phosphate group, which together make up RNA. Now, an international team of researchers  show that a wide range of nitriles occurs in interstellar space within the molecular cloud G+0.693-0.027, near the center of the Milky Way.

The researchers show that the chemistry that takes place in the interstellar medium is able to efficiently form multiple nitriles, which are key molecular precursors of the 'RNA World' scenario.

According to this scenario, life on Earth was originally based on RNA only, and DNA and protein enzymes evolved later. RNA can fulfill both their functions: storing and copying information like DNA, and catalyzing reactions like enzymes. According to the "RNA World" theory, nitriles and other building blocks for life needn't necessarily all have arisen on Earth itself: They might also have originated in space and "hitchhiked" to the young Earth inside meteorites and comets during the "Late Heavy Bombardment" period, between 4.1 and 3.8 billion years ago. In support, nitriles and other precursor molecules for nucleotides, lipids, and amino acids have been found inside contemporary comets and meteors.

But from where in space could these molecules have come? Prime candidates are molecular clouds, which are dense and cold regions of the interstellar medium, and are suitable for the formation of complex molecules. For example, the molecular cloud G+0.693-0.027 has a temperature of around 100 K and is approximately three light years across, with a mass approximately one thousand times that of our sun. There's no evidence that stars are currently forming inside G+0.693-0.027, although scientists suspect that it might evolve to become a stellar nursery in the future.

The chemical content of G+0.693-0.027 is similar to those of other star-forming regions in our galaxy, and also to that of solar system objects like comets. This means that its study can give us important insights about the chemical ingredients that were available in the nebula that give rise to our planetary system.

Thanks to the observations over the past few years, including the present results, we now know that nitriles are among the most abundant chemical families in the universe. We have found them in molecular clouds in the center of our galaxy, protostars of different masses, meteorites and comets, and also in the atmosphere of Titan, the largest moon of Saturn.

Molecular precursors of the RNA-world in space: new nitriles in the G+0.693-0.027 molecular cloud, Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences (2022). DOI: 10.3389/fspas.2022.876870, www.frontiersin.org/articles/1 … pas.2022.876870/full

Researchers discover how sound reduces pain in mice

An international team of scientists has identified the neural mechanisms through which sound blunts pain in mice. The findings, which could inform development of safer methods to treat pain, were published in Science.

By uncovering the circuitry that mediates the pain-reducing effects of sound in mice, this study adds critical knowledge that could ultimately inform new approaches for pain therapy.

Dating back to 1960, studies in humans have shown that music and other kinds of sound can help alleviate acute and chronic pain, including pain from dental and medical surgery, labor and delivery, and cancer. However, how the brain produces this pain reduction, or analgesia, was less clear.

Human brain imaging studies have implicated certain areas of the brain in music-induced analgesia, but these are only associations. Now  researchers first exposed mice with inflamed paws to three types of sound: a pleasant piece of classical music, an unpleasant rearrangement of the same piece, and white noise. Surprisingly, all three types of sound, when played at a low intensity relative to background noise (about the level of a whisper) reduced pain sensitivity in the mice. Higher intensities of the same sounds had no effect on animals' pain responses.

So the intensity of sound, and not the category or perceived pleasantness of sound would matter.

To explore the brain circuitry underlying this effect, the researchers used non-infectious viruses coupled with fluorescent proteins to trace connections between brain regions. They identified a route from the auditory cortex, which receives and processes information about sound, to the thalamus, which acts as a relay station for sensory signals, including pain, from the body. In freely moving mice, low-intensity white noise reduced the activity of neurons at the receiving end of the pathway in the thalamus.

In the absence of sound, suppressing the pathway with light- and small molecule-based techniques mimicked the pain-blunting effects of low-intensity noise, while turning on the pathway restored animals' sensitivity to pain.

 It is unclear if similar brain processes are involved in humans, or whether other aspects of sound, such as its perceived harmony or pleasantness, are important for human pain relief.
We don't know if human music means anything to rodents, but it has many different meanings to humans—you have a lot of emotional components.

The results could give scientists a starting point for studies to determine whether the animal findings apply to humans, and ultimately could inform development of safer alternatives to opioids for treating pain.

Zhou W, et al. Sound induces analgesia via corticothalamic circuits. Science. July 7, 2022. DOI: science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abn4663

 Artificial ventricle is a major step forward for organ biofabrication

Scientists hijack bacteria to ease drug manufacturing

Many of the medicines we take are made with ingredients extracted from plants (think, for example, morphine, the narcotic painkiller that comes from poppies, or galantamine, a drug treatment for dementia that comes from daffodils). Extracting drugs from these plants is complicated and resource-intensive, requiring water and acreage to grow the crops. Supply chains are easily disrupted. And crops can be damaged by floods, fires and drought. Deriving similar therapeutic components using synthetic chemistry brings problems, too, since the process depends on petroleum and petroleum-based products linked to waste and expense.

Enter the humble bacteria, a cheap, efficient and sustainable alternative. The genetic code of bacteria can be easily manipulated to become factories for drug production. In a process called biosynthesis, the bacteria’s biological systems are harnessed to produce specific molecules as part of the natural cellular process. And bacteria can replicate at high speed. All they need to do the job is sugar.

For more affordable, sustainable drug options than we have today, the medication we take to treat high blood pressure, pain or memory loss may one day come from engineered bacteria, cultured in a vat like yogurt. And thanks to a new bacterial tool developed by scientists , the process of improving drug manufacturing in bacterial cells may be coming sooner than we thought.

For decades, researchers have been eyeing ways to make drug manufacturing more affordable and sustainable than pharmaceutical makers’ current processes, many of which depend on either plant crops or petroleum. Using bacteria has been suggested as a good organic alternative, but detecting and optimizing the production of therapeutic molecules is difficult and time-consuming, requiring months at a stretch. In a new paper out this week in Nature Chemical Biology, researchers introduce a biosensor system, derived from E. coli bacteria, that can be adapted to detect all kinds of therapeutic compounds accurately and in mere hours.

Unfortunately, manufacturers have not had a way to quickly analyze different strains of engineered bacteria to identify the ones capable of producing quantities of a desired drug at commercial volumes — until now. Accurately analyzing the thousands of engineered strains on the way to a good producer can take weeks or months with current technology, but only a day with the new biosensors.

The biosensors developed now quickly and accurately determine the amount of a given molecule that a strain of bacteria is producing. The researchers developed the biosensors for several types of common drugs, such as cough suppressants and vasodilators, which are used to treat muscle spasms. Molecular images of the biosensors taken by X-ray crystallographers now show exactly how they tightly grab onto their partner drug. When the drug is detected by the biosensor, it glows. Additionally, the team engineered their own bacteria to produce a compound found in several FDA-approved drugs and used the biosensors to analyze product output, in essence showing how industry might adopt biosensors to quickly optimize chemical manufacturing.

This technique allows them to be developed faster and more efficiently. In turn, that opens the door to more medicines being produced using biosynthesis.

Simon d’Oelsnitz, Wantae Kim, Nathaniel T. Burkholder, Kamyab Javanmardi, Ross Thyer, Yan Zhang, Hal S. Alper, Andrew D. Ellington. Using fungible biosensors to evolve improved alkaloid biosyntheses. Nature Chemical Biology, 2022; DOI: 10.1038/s41589-022-01072-w

Mathematical calculations show that quantum communication across interstellar space should be possible

A team of physicists  has used mathematical calculations to show that quantum communications across interstellar space should be possible. In their paper published in the journal Physical Review D, the group describes their calculations and also the possibility of extraterrestrial beings attempting to communicate with us using such signaling.

Over the past several years, scientists have been investigating the possibility of using quantum communications as a highly secure form of message transmission. Prior research has shown that it would be nearly impossible to intercept such messages without detection. In this new effort, the researchers wondered if similar types of communications might be possible across interstellar space. To find out, they used math that describes that movement of X-rays across a medium, such as those that travel between the stars. More specifically, they looked to see if their calculations could show the degree of decoherence that might occur during such a journey.

With quantum communications, engineers are faced with quantum particles that lose some or all of their unique characteristics as they interact with obstructions in their path—they have been found to be quite delicate, in fact. Such events are known as decoherence, and engineers working to build quantum networks have been devising ways to overcome the problem. Prior research has shown that the space between the stars is pretty clean. But is it clean enough for quantum communications? The math shows that it is. Space is so clean, in fact, that X-ray photons could travel hundreds of thousands of light years without becoming subject to decoherence—and that includes gravitational interference from astrophysical bodies. They noted in their work that optical and microwave bands would work equally well.

The researchers noted that because quantum communication is possible across the galaxy, if other intelligent beings exist in the Milky Way, they could already be trying to communicate with us using such technology and we could begin looking for them. They also suggest that quantum teleportation across interstellar space should be possible.

Arjun Berera et al, Viability of quantum communication across interstellar distances, Physical Review D (2022). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevD.105.123033

What happens to your brain during a migraine 

Wearable Muscles

How stressed-out plants produce their own aspirin

Plants protect themselves from environmental hazards like insects, drought and heat by producing salicylic acid, also known as aspirin. A new understanding of this process may help plants survive increasing stress caused by climate change.

Scientists recently published a seminal paper in the journal Science Advances reporting how plants regulate the production of salicylic acid.

The researchers studied a model plant called Arabidopsis, but they hope to apply their understanding of stress responses in the cells of this plant to many other kinds of plants, including those grown for food. They'd like to be able to use the gained knowledge to improve crop resistance. That will be crucial for the food supply in our increasingly hot, bright world.

Environmental stresses result in the formation of reactive oxygen species or ROS in all living organisms. High levels of ROS in plants are lethal. 

As with many substances, the poison is in the amount. At low levels, ROS have an important function in plant cells. At non-lethal levels, ROS are like an emergency call to action, enabling the production of protective hormones such as salicylic acid. 

The research team discovered that heat, unabated sunshine, or drought cause the sugar-making apparatus in plant cells to generate an initial alarm molecule known as MEcPP.

Going forward, the researchers want to learn more about MEcPP, which is also produced in organisms such as bacteria and malaria parasites. Accumulation of MEcPP in plants triggers the production of salicylic acid, which in turn begins a chain of protective actions in the cells.

It's like plants use a painkiller for aches and pains, just like we do. The acid protects plants' chloroplasts, which are the site of photosynthesis, a process of using light to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars for energy.

Because salicylic acid helps plants withstand stresses becoming more prevalent with climate change, being able to increase plants' ability to produce it represents a step forward in challenging the impacts of climate change on everyday life. 

 Jin-Zheng Wang et al, Reciprocity between a retrograde signal and a putative metalloprotease reconfigures plastidial metabolic and structural states, Science Advances (2022). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abo0724

Crew aboard private yacht confirm sighting of bioluminescent 'milky sea'

An atmospheric scientist has gained confirmation of his discovery of a bioluminescent "milky sea" event through testimony of a crew aboard a private yacht. In his paper published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the scientist describes how he discovered the event while studying satellite images and then gained confirmation from a crew aboard a yacht that happened to be sailing through the area.

Prior incidents have suggested that large bioluminescent events sometimes occur in parts of the ocean, but such events are rare and there is little photographic evidence of them. One of the more notorious was Charles Darwin and crew sailing over such an event just below the tip of South America. Ocean scientists think they are created by millions of tiny bioluminescent creatures all glowing together. Only one test has been confirmed, a research vessel sailing through such an event collected water samples and found them filled with glowing bacteria.

Researchers now pored over old sailor logs looking for descriptions of bioluminescent events and found a lot of them, most describing them as traveling through a milky sea. They noted that the events were seen most commonly in the Indian Ocean and the waters around Java.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sFkaGM8rDGw&t=9s

A  private yacht, had sailed in the area and had documented what they saw. They described the sea as glowing at night, from below the surface, with a description of it appearing as if sailing on snow. 

Steven D. Miller, Boat encounter with the 2019 Java bioluminescent milky sea: Views from on-deck confirm satellite detection, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2022). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2207612119

A glove that mimics the arm of an octopus

Researchers find the missing photonic link to enable an all-silicon quantum internet

Researchers have made a crucial breakthrough in the development of quantum technology.

Their research, published in Nature today, describes their observations of more than 150,000 silicon "T center" photon-spin qubits, an important milestone that unlocks immediate opportunities to construct massively scalable quantum computers and the quantum internet that will connect them.

Quantum computing has enormous potential to provide computing power well beyond the capabilities of today's supercomputers, which could enable advances in many other fields, including chemistry, materials science, medicine and cybersecurity.

In order to make this a reality, it is necessary to produce both stable, long-lived qubits that provide processing power, as well as the communication technology that enables these qubits to link together at scale.

Past research has indicated that silicon can produce some of the most stable and long-lived qubits in the industry. Now this new research   provides proof of principle that T centers, a specific luminescent defect in silicon, can provide a "photonic link" between qubits. 

This work is the first measurement of single T centers in isolation, and actually, the first measurement of any single spin in silicon to be performed with only optical measurements.

Stephanie Simmons, Optical observation of single spins in silicon, Nature (2022). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04821-y. www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04821-y

Turning white blood cells into medicinal microrobots with light

Medicinal microrobots could help physicians better treat and prevent diseases. But most of these devices are made with synthetic materials that trigger immune responses in vivo. Now, for the first time, researchers reporting in ACS Central Science have used lasers to precisely control neutrophils—a type of white blood cell—as a natural, biocompatible microrobot in living fish. The "neutrobots" performed multiple tasks, showing they could someday deliver drugs to precise locations in the body.

Microrobots currently in development for medical applications would require injections or the consumption of capsules to get them inside an animal or person. But researchers have found that these microscopic objects often trigger immune reactions in small animals, resulting in the removal of microrobots from the body before they can perform their jobs. Using cells already present in the body, such as neutrophils, could be a less invasive alternative for drug delivery that wouldn't set off the immune system. These white blood cells already naturally pick up nanoparticles and dead red blood cells and can migrate through blood vessels into adjacent tissues, so they are good candidates for becoming microrobots.

Previously, researchers have guided neutrophils with lasers in lab dishes, moving them around as "neutrobots." However, information on whether this approach will work in living animals was lacking. So the

researchers manipulated and maneuvered neutrophils in zebrafish tails, using focused laser beams as remote optical tweezers. The light-driven microrobot could be moved up to a velocity of 1.3 µm/s, which is three times faster than a neutrophil naturally moves. In their experiments, the researchers used the optical tweezers to precisely and actively control the functions that neutrophils conduct as part of the immune system. For instance, a neutrobot was moved through a blood vessel wall into the surrounding tissue. Another one picked up and transported a plastic nanoparticle, showing its potential for carrying medicine. And when a neutrobot was pushed toward red blood cell debris, it engulfed the pieces. Surprisingly, at the same time, a different neutrophil, which wasn't controlled by a laser, tried to naturally remove the cellular debris.

Because they successfully controlled neutrobots in vivo, the researchers say this study advances the possibilities for targeted drug delivery and precise treatment of diseases.

Optically Manipulated Neutrophils as Native Microcrafts In Vivo, ACS Central Science (2022). DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.2c00468