The researchers also investigated how sleepy a participant felt when they woke up. While participants felt the sleepiest when awoken from REM sleep, the impact of the slow waves in non-REM sleep stages is quite intriguing.

They found a new aspect in which slow waves can present very distinct and opposite behaviors. Some slow waves are actually acting like arousal elements—they are part of the 'wake up!' signal. The more these waves occur just before awakening, the more alert you tend to feel upon awakening. While the other slow waves—whether they are present before waking up or persisting after—are the reason we sometimes feel so sleepy in the first moments of the day.
These findings can be used for future research into sleep disorders, such as insomnia or conditions involving incomplete awakenings.

Aurélie M. Stephan et al, Cortical activity upon awakening from sleep reveals consistent spatio-temporal gradients across sleep stages in human EEG, Current Biology (2025). DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2025.06.064

Part 2

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Quantum internet moves closer as researchers teleport light-based information

Quantum teleportation is a fascinating process that involves transferring a particle's quantum state to another distant location, without moving or detecting the particle itself. This process could be central to the realization of a so-called "quantum internet," a version of the internet that enables the safe and instant transmission of quantum information between devices within the same network.

Quantum teleportation is far from a recent idea, as it was experimentally realized several times in the past. Nonetheless, most previous demonstrations utilized frequency conversion rather than natively operating in the telecom band.

Researchers recently demonstrated the teleportation of a telecom-wavelength photonic qubit (i.e., a quantum bit encoded in light at the same wavelengths supporting current communications) to a telecom quantum memory. Their paper, published in Physical Review Letters, could open new possibilities for the realization of scalable quantum networks and thus potentially a quantum internet.

 Yu-Yang An et al, Quantum Teleportation from Telecom Photons to Erbium-Ion Ensembles, Physical Review Letters (2025). DOI: 10.1103/3wh8-2gh1.

Engineered bacteria pave the way for vegan cheese and yogurt

Bacteria are set to transform the future of dairy-free milk products. Scientists have successfully engineered E. coli to produce key milk proteins essential for cheese and yogurt production, without using any animal-derived ingredients. This paves the way for plant-based dairy alternatives that mimic traditional dairy at a molecular level but are sustainable and cruelty-free.

A recent study published in Trends in Biotechnology reported two methods for producing casein (a milk protein) that are nutritionally and functionally similar to bovine casein.

Casein is a highly sought-after component in both infant and adult diets, as it is digestible, of high quality, and provides several essential amino acids our body needs.

The food and pharmaceutical industries have utilized microorganisms as cell factories for the large-scale production of biomolecules, dietary supplements, and enzymes for quite some time. Scientists were curious to see if the same approach could be used for recombinant casein proteins, produced through genetic engineering in microbial cell factories. However, these techniques often fail to replicate a key factor that imparts casein its unique properties—phosphorylation, a biological process where a phosphate group is added to a protein.

Phosphorylation of serine residues (amino acid components) is critical for casein's ability to bind calcium, which makes milk stable and provides it with nutritional properties. Calcium binding also ensures the formation of nanoscale protein structures called casein micelles, which act as delivery agents for bioavailable calcium and phosphate.

To overcome this issue, the researchers adopted two main strategies. First, they engineered bacteria to co-express three Bacillus subtilis protein kinases, which are enzymes that catalyze the addition of phosphate groups to proteins. Second, they designed a phosphomimetic version of αs1-casein, in which serine residues normally phosphorylated in the naturally occurring protein were replaced with aspartic acid to mimic the negative charge and functional effects of phosphorylation.

The team carried out structural analysis, calcium-binding tests, and simulated gastrointestinal digestion of the derived αs1-casein. The results indicated that both the phosphorylated and phosphomimetic caseins of bacterial origin had a high calcium-binding capacity, and their digestibility and structure were comparable to that of cattle-derived casein.

The researchers highlighted that while kinase-mediated phosphorylation provides a route for closely mimicking native casein, phosphomimetic casein provides a simpler path for producing functionally similar proteins. 

 Suvasini Balasubramanian et al, Production of phosphorylated and functional αs1-casein in Escherichia coli, Trends in Biotechnology (2025). DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2025.05.015

Scientists use dental floss to deliver vaccines without needles

Flossing your teeth at least once a day is an essential part of any oral health routine. But it might also one day protect other parts of the body as scientists have created a novel, needle-free vaccine approach using a specialized type of floss.

In a study published in Nature Biomedical Engineering, researchers demonstrated that when floss laced with vaccine  components, such as proteins and inactive viruses, was applied along the gum lines of mice, it triggered an immune response.

This method of vaccine delivery is effective because the areas of gum between the teeth are highly permeable, allowing them to absorb vaccine molecules easily.

In the experiment, researchers flossed 50 mice every two weeks for 28 days, which wasn't an easy task. To floss each mouse, one person had to gently pull their jaw down with the metal ring from a keychain while another did the flossing.

Four weeks after the final vaccine dose, the mice were exposed to a lethal strain of flu.

All rodents that received the floss-based vaccine survived while the unvaccinated animals died. Additionally, the mice that had been flossed had a more widespread immune response throughout their bodies. Flu antibodies were detected in their feces, saliva and even in their bone marrow.

Finding antibodies in the bone marrow suggests the mice's bodies had established a long-term immune response. The researchers also saw an increase in T Cells (a type of immune cell that fights off infections) in the mice's lungs and spleen.

Next, the researchers wanted to see whether flossing would be a viable approach for humans. So they asked 27 healthy volunteers to floss with dental picks coated with food dye. On average, the dye reached the gums about 60% of the time.

The mouth and nose are the primary entry points for many viruses, making the oral cavity an ideal site for vaccine delivery. However, scientists have faced significant hurdles in developing needle-free vaccine alternatives for these areas due to the body's tough defenses against foreign invaders. A floss-based approach could bypass these challenges, offering a promising new method.

 Rohan S. J. Ingrole et al, Floss-based vaccination targets the gingival sulcus for mucosal and systemic immunization, Nature Biomedical Engineering (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41551-025-01451-3

A Fungus, Not Its Insect Host, Paints the World Red

Lac insects carry a yeast-like symbiont that produces a commercially important bright red pigment, revealing insights about insect-microbe symbiosis.

For thousands of years, artisans have been dyeing textiles, jewelry, and handicrafts with a rich, vibrant red pigment that they obtain from lac insects. The most widely-cultivated lac insect, Kerria lacca, is bright crimson because of its natural pigments called laccaic acids.

Researchers now  found that K. lacca carry a yeast-like symbiont, which produces the colorful lac pigment and provides essential nutrients that the insects’ plant diet lacks.

Their findings, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, highlight the role of fungal symbionts in insects for providing nutrition and other metabolites.

To characterize the lac insect, the research  team sequenced its genome, as well as that of its known symbionts: bacteria belonging to the genus Wolbachia, and an unidentified yeast-like fungus. They discovered that neither the lac insect nor Wolbachia carried the genes required to produce the molecules that make up laccaic acids. However, genes in the yeast-like symbiont encoded various enzymes that did, indicating the fungus as the only plausible source of the pigment. 

The researchers validated that the pigment originated in the yeast-like symbiont by spraying lac insects with fungicides. Depleting the fungal symbiont reduced the expression of genes required for pigment synthesis. Mass spectrometry revealed lower concentrations of laccaic acids in fungicide-treated insects, which also appeared paler in comparison to untreated insects. However, the fungicide treatment did not eliminate the yeast completely. “Therefore, the insects weren't completely colorless”.

Vaishally, et al. An endosymbiotic origin of the crimson pigment from the lac insect. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2025;122(25):e2501623122.

Vashishtha A, et al. Co-existence, phylogeny and putative role of Wolbachia and yeast-like symbiont (YLS) in Kerria lacca (Kerr). Curr Microbiol. 2011;63(2):206-212.

https://www.the-scientist.com/a-fungus-not-its-insect-host-paints-t...

Humanity Has Dammed So Much Water It's Shifted Earth's Magnetic Poles

Recent shifts in Earth's magnetic field have human fingerprints all over them. While it is normal for our planet's magnetic poles to sporadically wander, new research shows we've now amassed enough water behind dam walls to account for at least some of the current movements. Harvard University geophysicist Natasha Valencic and colleagues calculated that the masses concentrated in just under 7,000 of Earth's biggest dams have knocked the crust's axis of rotation off kilter by around one meter (three feet) relative to the dynamo that drives the magnetic fields beneath the crust. What's more, all this water hoarding has also caused a 21-millimeter-drop in sea levels. As we trap water behind dams, not only does it remove water from the oceans, thus leading to a global sea level fall, it also distributes mass in a different way around the world This mass redistribution can impact Earth's magnetic pole positions relative to the surface. Extra weight added to a spinning sphere pulls the weighted part towards the equator, shifting the axis around which the sphere spins. So, redistributing Earth's surface weight re-orientates its spin axis, whether that be through damming water, melting glaciers, or groundwater removal. But it's only Earth's outer crust floating over its gooey inner parts – not the inner goo generating the magnetic field – that shift, leading to a different part of Earth's surface sitting over our planet's inner magnetic north. So, while north itself hasn't really moved in space, Earth's surface has shifted around, over the top of it. This phenomenon is called true polar wander.

https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025GL115468

Study links caffeine intake to decreased antibiotic potency in common bacteria

Ingredients of our daily diet—including caffeine—can influence the resistance of bacteria to antibiotics. This has been shown in a new study by a team of researchers.

They discovered that bacteria such as Escherichia coli (E. coli) orchestrate complex regulatory cascades to react to chemical stimuli from their direct environment, which can influence the effectiveness of antimicrobial drugs.

In a systematic screening, the researchers investigated how 94 different substances—including antibiotics, prescription drugs, and food ingredients—influence the expression of key gene regulators and transport proteins of the bacterium E. coli, a potential pathogen. Transport proteins function as pores and pumps in the bacterial envelope and control which substances enter or leave the cell. A finely tuned balance of these mechanisms is crucial for the survival of bacteria.

Their data shows that several substances can subtly but systematically influence gene regulation in bacteria. The findings suggest even everyday substances without a direct antimicrobial effect—e.g., caffeinated drinks—can impact certain gene regulators that control transport proteins, thereby changing what enters and leaves the bacterium.

Caffeine triggers a cascade of events starting with the gene regulator Rob and culminating in the change of several transport proteins in E. coli—which in turn leads to a reduced uptake of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin. This results in caffeine weakening the effect of this antibiotic. The researchers describe this phenomenon as an "antagonistic interaction."

This weakening effect of certain antibiotics was not detectable in Salmonella enterica, a pathogen closely related to E. coli. This shows that even in similar bacterial species, the same environmental stimuli can lead to different reactions—possibly due to differences in transport pathways or their contribution to antibiotic uptake.

 Christoph Binsfeld et al, Systematic screen uncovers regulator contributions to chemical cues in Escherichia coli, PLOS Biology (2025). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3003260

Scientists discover blood protein albumin transforms harmless fungus into dangerous pathogens

A research team has uncovered a new way in which the yeast Candida albicans can damage human tissue. In a study published in Nature Communications, the scientists describe an alternative pathogenicity strategy involving the human serum protein albumin. This mechanism has not previously been described and may help explain why certain clinical isolates of Candida albicans appear harmless in laboratory tests, yet cause infections in patients.

Candida albicans is part of the normal human microbiome, colonizing mucosal surfaces without causing harm. Under specific conditions, however, the fungus can become pathogenic—particularly in people with weakened immune systems. Scientists have long known that Candida albicans causes infections using well-described mechanisms, such as toxin production and hyphae formation to invade host tissues.

Now, an international research team has uncovered another tool with which the yeast can cause damage. They found that even strains or mutants previously considered non-virulent in the lab became cytotoxic when albumin was present.

Albumin is the most abundant protein in human blood serum. It plays various roles in transport, nutrient binding, and immune regulation. In carefully controlled infection models, the researchers found that albumin triggered a shift in fungal behavior: even previously non-harmful Candida strains began to grow more strongly, form biofilms, and release a cytotoxic lipid molecule called 13-HODE, which directly damages human cells.

The fungus doesn't necessarily need to grow long hyphae or produce great amounts of toxin in order to cause infection. Depending on the condition it's facing, it will adapt—and it can take advantage of the host.

To uncover the mechanism leading to infection, the team used a combination of methods including microscopy, cell-based damage assays, transcriptomics, and metabolomics. They showed that albumin triggered a reprogramming of fungal metabolism, including lipid oxidation pathways that lead to the production of the toxic compound 13-HODE—which previously had not been associated with Candida albicans virulence.

Sophia U. J. Hitzler et al, Host albumin redirects Candida albicans metabolism to engage an alternative pathogenicity pathway, Nature Communications (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-61701-5

Meta's wristband breakthrough lets you use digital devices without touching them

Could Meta be on the verge of transforming how we interact with our digital devices? If the company's latest innovation takes off, we might soon be controlling our computers, cell phones and tablets with a simple flick of the wrist.

Researchers at Meta's Reality Labs division have unveiled an experimental wristband that translates hand gestures and subtle finger movements into commands that interact with a computer. This allows a user to push a cursor around a screen or open an app without needing a mouse, touchscreen or keyboard. The technology can even transcribe handwriting in the air into text (currently at a speed of 20.9 words per minute).

In a paper published in Nature, the team describes how its sEMG-RD (surface electromyography research) works. The wristband uses a technique called electromyography to pick up electrical signals when the brain tells the hand to perform an action. It then converts those signals into commands that control a connected device, such as your phone.

 Patrick Kaifosh et al, A generic non-invasive neuromotor interface for human-computer interaction, Nature (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-025-09255-w

Scientists create an artificial cell capable of navigating its environment using chemistry alone

Researchers  have created the world's simplest artificial cell capable of chemical navigation, migrating toward specific substances like living cells do.

This breakthrough, published in Science Advances, demonstrates how microscopic bubbles can be programmed to follow chemical trails. The study describes the development of a "minimal cell" in the form of a lipid vesicle encapsulating enzymes that can propel itself through chemotaxis.

Cellular transport is a vital aspect of many biological processes and a key milestone in evolution. Among all types of movement, chemotaxis is an essential strategy used by many living systems to move towards beneficial signals, such as nutrients, or away from harmful ones.

Bacteria rely on it to find food, white blood cells use it to reach sites of infection, and even sperm cells navigate toward the egg through chemotaxis. 

 This type of directed movement can occur even without the complex machinery typically involved, such as flagella or intricate signaling pathways. By recreating it in a minimal synthetic system, researchers aim to uncover the core principles that make such movement possible.

Being able to engineer an artificial cell could help scientists better understand how cell units drive further evolution into more complex structures.

Part 1

To achieve this, the research team studied how cell-like vesicles move in gradients of two substrates: glucose and urea. They enclosed glucose oxidase or urease enzymes within lipid-based vesicles, called liposomes, to convert glucose and urea into their respective end products.

The liposomes were then modified by adding an essential membrane pore protein. This protein acts as a channel for substrates to enter the synthetic cell and for the products of the reactions to exit.

It is known that active motion depends on breaking symmetry. By trapping the enzymes inside the particle and utilizing the pores as the primary exchange points, a difference in chemical concentration is generated around the particle. This causes fluid flow along the vesicle's surface and directs the particle's movement. It is as if the liposome were a boat, and the pore and the enzyme were its engine and navigation system.
The research team analyzed the transport of over 10,000 vesicles inside microfluidic channels with glucose or urease gradients to understand general population behavior. They studied the trajectories of vesicles with varying numbers of pores and compared them with those of control vesicles lacking pores.
They observed that the control vesicles move towards lower substrate concentrations due to passive effects other than chemotaxis. As the number of pores in the vesicles increases, so does the chemotactic component. Eventually, this reverses the direction of movement, causing the vesicles to move towards areas with higher substrate concentrations.
These results are promising from a biochemical perspective because the elements studied are ubiquitously present in the structure of a large majority of cells.

Barbara Borges Fernandes et al, The minimal chemotactic cell, Science Advances (2025). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adx9364. www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adx9364

Part 2

Do We Have To Die? With Nobel prize winning Venki Ramakrishnan

Globally, over 2.5 million COVID deaths prevented worldwide thanks to vaccines, data indicate

Thanks to vaccinations against SARS-CoV-2 in the period 2020–2024, 2.533 million deaths were prevented at the global level; one death was avoided for every 5,400 doses of vaccine administered.

Some 82% of the lives saved by vaccines involved people vaccinated before encountering the virus, 57% during the omicron period, and 90% involved people aged 60 years and older. In all, vaccines have saved 14.8 million years of life (one year of life saved for 900 doses of vaccine administered).

These are some of the data released in an unprecedented study published in the journal Jama Health Forum.

The experts studied worldwide population data, applying a series of statistical methods to figure out who among the people who became ill with COVID did either before or after getting vaccinated, before or after the omicron period, and how many of them died (and at what age).

They compared this data with the estimated data modeled in the absence of COVID vaccination and were then able to calculate the numbers of people who were saved by COVID vaccines and the years of life gained as a result of them.

It also turned out that most of the saved years of life (76%) involved people over 60 years of age, but residents in long-term care facilities contributed only 2% of the total number. Children and adolescents (0.01% of lives saved and 0.1% of life years saved) and young adults aged 20–29 (0.07% of lives saved and 0.3% of life years saved) contributed very little to the total benefit.

Most of the benefits, in terms of lives and life-years saved, have been secured for a portion of the global population who are typically more fragile, the elderly.

Global Estimates of Lives and Life-Years Saved by COVID-19 Vaccination During 2020-2024, JAMA Health Forum (2025).

Electrical stimulation of facial muscles influences how people perceive others' emotions, study finds

Psychology research suggests that the human body, particularly the muscles on our face, plays a key part in the processing of others' emotions. For instance, past findings suggest that when we see another person smiling or frowning, we often unconsciously mimic their facial expression, and this helps us interpret their emotions.

Theories suggest that the mimicry of facial expressions sends signals from our facial muscles to the brain, broadly referred to as "facial feedback," which in turn contributes to the interpretation of other people's emotions. So far, however, the contribution of this feedback to emotion recognition and how its contribution unfolds over time remain poorly understood.

Researchers recently carried out a study to investigate the effects of facial feedback on the perception of emotions at different stages of visual processing, using a technique known as facial neuromuscular electrical stimulation (fNMES). Their findings, published in Communications Psychology, suggest that signals generated by the movements of muscles on people's faces influence how they interpret the emotions of others, particularly during the earlier stages of visual processing.

When the researchers stimulated Zygomaticus Major muscles (the main muscles involved in smiling), people reported to feel happier, however when they stimulated the Depressor Anguli Oris muscles (involved in frowning), people reported the opposite. In another paper, they found that stimulating smiling muscles made people more likely to see happiness in ambiguous faces.

A key implication of this  study is that facial feedback can reduce the brain's reliance on visual processing when interpreting emotional expressions.

This suggests that when the body provides relevant emotional signals—such as those from the smiling muscles—the visual system doesn't need to work as hard to make sense of visual ambiguities. These results have important consequences for how we understand emotion perception: it's not just about what we see, but also about what our body is telling us.

J. Baker et al, Electrical stimulation of smiling muscles reduces visual processing load and enhances happiness perception in neutral faces, Communications Psychology (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s44271-025-00281-y.

New study shows how sweat really forms

If you're currently experiencing a hot summer, the chances are the sweat is pouring off you, soaking your clothing. This clear, odorless substance is a vital component of a healthy bodily function that helps cool you down and prevent overheating. However, the process by which sweat forms and emerges from the skin is more intricate than previously thought.

Sweat may often appear as a series of discrete droplets seeping from the skin, but a new study in the Journal of the Royal Society Interface tells a different story. Instead of forming distinct beads, sweat rises like a tide through the pores to saturate the top layer of skin. It gathers in a shallow pool in each pore before merging with others to form a complete film across the skin's surface.

These  findings challenge the traditional conceptualization of sweat emerging from pores as hemispherical droplets, demonstrating that sweat commonly forms a shallow meniscus in the pore.

In the experiments conducted, the subjects were heated, cooled, then heated again while researchers measured the sweat forming on their foreheads. They began to perspire within 15 minutes, with sweat emerging and evaporating from their pores in a repeating cycle. Instead of forming little droplets, the sweat was nearly flat, settling in each pore until it spilled out and connected with sweat from other pores to create a puddle, which then formed a film coating the skin.

The sweat soaked through the outermost layer of dead skin cells (stratum corneum), and once it was completely soaked, the sweat pooled on top. When the participants were cooled down, the newly formed film of sweat rapidly evaporated, leaving behind a thin layer of salt.

After heating the participants again, the sweat emerged quicker than before. This time, the salt layer allowed the sweat to soak more quickly into the stratum corneum, and the second sweat layer bypassed the droplet stage entirely, emerging as a film.

 Cibin T. Jose et al, A micro-to-macroscale and multi-method investigation of human sweating dynamics, Journal of The Royal Society Interface (2025). DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2025.0407

Beetroot juice lowers blood pressure in older people by changing oral microbiome, study shows

The blood pressure-lowering effect of nitrate-rich beetroot juice in older people may be due to specific changes in their oral microbiome, according to the largest study of its kind.

Researchers  conducted the study, published in the journal Free Radical Biology and Medicine, comparing responses between a group of older adults to that of younger adults. Previous research has shown that a high nitrate diet can reduce blood pressure, which can help reduce the risk of heart disease. The paper is titled "Ageing modifies the oral microbiome, nitric oxide bioavailability and vascular responses to dietary nitrate supplementation."

Nitrate is crucial to the body and is consumed as a natural part of a vegetable-rich diet. When the older adults drank a concentrated beetroot juice shot twice a day for two weeks, their blood pressure decreased—an effect not seen in the younger group.

The new study provides evidence that this outcome was likely caused by the suppression of potentially harmful bacteria in the mouth.

An imbalance between beneficial and harmful oral bacteria can decrease the conversion of nitrate (abundant in vegetable-rich diets) to nitric oxide. Nitric oxide is key to healthy functioning of the blood vessels, and therefore the regulation of blood pressure.

Encouraging older adults to consume more nitrate-rich vegetables could have significant long-term health benefits. The good news is that if you don't like beetroot, there are many nitrate-rich alternatives, like spinach, arugula, fennel, celery and kale, say the researchers.

Anni Vanhatalo et al, Ageing modifies the oral microbiome, nitric oxide bioavailability and vascular responses to dietary nitrate supplementation, Free Radical Biology and Medicine (2025). DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2025.07.002

Forever chemicals, lasting effects: Prenatal PFAS exposure shapes baby immunity

New research reveals that tiny amounts of PFAS—widely known as "forever chemicals"—cross the placenta and breast milk to alter infants' developing immune systems, potentially leaving lasting imprints on their ability to fight disease.

 Researchers tracked 200  healthy mother–baby pairs, measuring common PFAS compounds in maternal blood during pregnancy and then profiling infants' key T‑cell populations at birth, six months, and one year. By age 12 months, babies whose mothers had higher prenatal PFAS exposure exhibited significantly fewer T follicular helper (Tfh) cells—vital coaches that help B cells produce strong, long‑lasting antibodies—and disproportionately more Th2, Th1, and regulatory T cells (Tregs), each linked to allergies, autoimmunity, or immune suppression when out of balance.

The study is published in the journal Environmental Health Perspectives.

Identification of these particular cells and pathways opens up the potential for early monitoring or mitigation strategies for the effects of PFAS exposure, in order to prevent lifelong diseases, stress the researchers.

Darline Castro Meléndez et al, In utero per – and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) exposure and changes in infant T helper cell development among UPSIDE-ECHO cohort participants., Environmental Health Perspectives (2025). DOI: 10.1289/EHP16726

Building a high rise out of wood? Cross-laminated timber could make it possible

A new study finds that adopting cross-laminated timber as a primary construction material could have significant environmental benefits, from carbon storage to global reforestation and increased forest cover.

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is created by stacking multiple layers of timber and then adhering the layers together. This results in strong, light wooden panels up to 60 feet long, big enough to form an entire wall or other structures. These panels are also fire-resistant. When exposed to fire, the outer layer of a CLT panel turns to char, which seals the rest of the wood away and prevents it from igniting.

Because CLT is such a promising construction material, researchers wanted to determine the effects of adopting it more broadly. To do this, they combined an environmental assessment tool known as a life cycle assessment (LCA), which tracks the environmental effects of a product throughout its life cycle, with the Global Timber Model (GTM), an economic model which examines the effects of land use and policy on the global timber market.

Researchers integrated data from the two tools to predict the economic and environmental impacts of a broad move toward CLT in construction globally. They found that a move to CLT would increase forest cover worldwide, as the production of CLT would necessitate larger and more intensely managed forests to supply raw timber. While a small portion of natural forest would need to be converted, the increase in managed forests and plantation land could lead to an overall increase in forest area of nearly 30 million hectares globally by 2100.

Economically, the GTM showed that increased demand for CLT results in an increase in timber prices, as projected forest cover increases only add around 11% to the global wood supply even in the most aggressive adoption scenario. This leads to a 26.3% increase in sawtimber prices and a 25.9% increase in pulpwood prices by 2100, compared to no CLT adoption. Sawtimber is used to make traditional wood products like plywood, lumber and wood panels, while pulpwood is used in paper products. Part 1

Building a high rise out of wood? Cross-laminated timber could make it possible

A new study finds that adopting cross-laminated timber as a primary construction material could have significant environmental benefits, from carbon storage to global reforestation and increased forest cover.

Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is created by stacking multiple layers of timber and then adhering the layers together. This results in strong, light wooden panels up to 60 feet long, big enough to form an entire wall or other structures. These panels are also fire-resistant. When exposed to fire, the outer layer of a CLT panel turns to char, which seals the rest of the wood away and prevents it from igniting.

Because CLT is such a promising construction material, researchers wanted to determine the effects of adopting it more broadly. To do this, they combined an environmental assessment tool known as a life cycle assessment (LCA), which tracks the environmental effects of a product throughout its life cycle, with the Global Timber Model (GTM), an economic model which examines the effects of land use and policy on the global timber market.

Researchers integrated data from the two tools to predict the economic and environmental impacts of a broad move toward CLT in construction globally. They found that a move to CLT would increase forest cover worldwide, as the production of CLT would necessitate larger and more intensely managed forests to supply raw timber. While a small portion of natural forest would need to be converted, the increase in managed forests and plantation land could lead to an overall increase in forest area of nearly 30 million hectares globally by 2100.

Economically, the GTM showed that increased demand for CLT results in an increase in timber prices, as projected forest cover increases only add around 11% to the global wood supply even in the most aggressive adoption scenario. This leads to a 26.3% increase in sawtimber prices and a 25.9% increase in pulpwood prices by 2100, compared to no CLT adoption. Sawtimber is used to make traditional wood products like plywood, lumber and wood panels, while pulpwood is used in paper products. Part 1

Increasing forest cover also carries significant benefits for carbon sequestration, as both the CLT itself and the forests needed to create it store carbon. Depending on how quickly the global market adopts CLT, researchers predict that CLT demand would increase the amount of carbon stored on land by 20.3–25.2 gigatons (carbon dioxide equivalent) by 2100. This effect is amplified by lowering demand for traditional construction materials like steel and concrete caused by an increase in CLT demand.
When we increase usage of CLT, we decrease demand for those traditional construction materials. When you use less traditional materials, you emit less greenhouse gases while creating those materials
All of these effects combine over the entire lifecycle of the CLT to create the environmental benefits.

Kai Lan et al, Global land and carbon consequences of mass timber products, Nature Communications (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-60245-y

Part 2

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Coolness hits the skin uniquely; now scientists know why

Researchers have illuminated a complete sensory pathway showing how the skin communicates the temperature of its surroundings to the brain.

This discovery, believed to be the first of its kind, reveals that cool temperatures have their own pathway, indicating that evolution has created different circuits for hot and cold temperatures. This creates an elegant solution for ensuring precise thermal perception and appropriate behavioral responses to environmental changes.

 More than 70% of people who have undergone chemotherapy experience pain caused by cool temperatures. 

The new study found that the neural circuit responsible for sensing innocuous cool does not mediate this type of cold pain. But, in understanding how the cool-sensing circuitry works when it's functioning properly under normal conditions, researchers now have a better chance of discovering what goes wrong in disease or injury. It could also aid in the development of targeted therapies to restore healthy sensation without impairing normal temperature perception.

The researchers used   sophisticated imaging techniques and electrophysiology to observe how mice transmitted the sensation of cool temperatures from their skin to the brain.

These tools have allowed them to identify the neural pathways for chemical itch and mechanical itch previously.

The cool signal starts at the skin, which is home to molecule sensors that can detect a specific range of temperatures between about 15 and 25 degrees Celsius—equivalent to 59 and 77 degrees Fahrenheit. When those sensors engage, they excite primary sensory neurons, which send the cool signal to the spinal cord. Here, the team found that the signal is amplified by specialized interneurons, which then activate projection neurons that connect to the brain.

With the amplifier disabled, the cool signal becomes lost in the noise, the team found.

Although the study was performed in mice, each component of the circuit has been shown to be in humans through genetic sequencing. 

So it's likely that we have the same pathway to thank for the refreshing sensation of stepping into an air-conditioned room on a hot summer day.

 A dedicated skin-to-brain circuit for cool sensation in mice, Nature Communications (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-61562-y

Changes in female body odor during ovulation elicit measurable reactions in men, finds study

Researchers explored how female body odor can influence behaviors in men. They found that certain scent compounds in female body odor increased during ovulation and can subtly influence how men feel.

When these scents were added to armpit odor samples, men rated them as more pleasant and faces associated with the samples as more attractive. The scents also seemed to reduce stress. The team states this is not evidence of pheromones in humans, but that smell might subtly shape how people interact.

This study show something measurable and interesting is happening, analogous to the idea of pheromones.

The researchers  identified three body odor components that increased during women's ovulatory periods. When men sniffed a mix of those compounds and a model armpit odor, they reported those samples as less unpleasant, and accompanying images of women as more attractive and more feminine.

Furthermore, those compounds were found to relax the male subjects, compared to a control, and even suppressed the increase in the amount of amylase (a stress biomarker) in their saliva. These results suggest that body odor may in some way contribute to communication between men and women.

Previous studies by different groups have already discovered that female body odor changes throughout the menstrual and that the changes in the ovulatory phase can be perceived by men and are reported as being pleasant. But the specific nature of these odors went unidentified and is something this latest study managed to achieve.

 These tests were done "blind," meaning the participants did not receive any hints about what they were smelling or why, with some participants being given nothing at all as a measure of control.

This way, psychological factors and expectations were reduced or eliminated.

But the researchers say they cannot conclusively say at this time that the compounds they found which increase during the ovulation period are human pheromones. 

Human ovulatory phase-increasing odors cause positive emotions and stress-suppressive effects in males, iScience (2025). DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2025.113087

Scientists grow novel 'whole-brain' organoid

Researchers have grown a novel whole-brain organoid, complete with neural tissues and rudimentary blood vessels—an advance that could usher in a new era of research into neuropsychiatric disorders such as autism.

The research, published in Advanced Science, marks one of the first times scientists have been able to generate an organoid with tissues from each region of the brain connected and acting in concert. Having a human cell-based model of the brain will open possibilities for studying schizophrenia, autism, and other neurological diseases that affect the whole brain—work that typically is conducted in animal models.

Anannya Kshirsagar et al, Multi‐Region Brain Organoids Integrating Cerebral, Mid‐Hindbrain, and Endothelial Systems, Advanced Science (2025). DOI: 10.1002/advs.202503768

Rigid and negative thought patterns linked to increasing political polarization online

The ideological divide between opposing political groups has been drastically increasing in various countries worldwide. This phenomenon, known as political polarization, can lead to greater social division, extremism and political violence.

Researchers  recently carried out a study aimed at better understanding the psychology of political polarization and, more specifically, the thought patterns associated with extreme and opposing political views. Their findings, published in Communications Psychology, unveiled a link between the rising political polarization online and distorted ways of thinking often associated with some mental health disorders, including anxiety and depression.

Distorted thinking appeared to precede polarization in some cases. This suggests that how we think—emotionally and cognitively—may be a key driver of polarization, not just what we believe. Of course, their observations do not imply causality.

Andy Edinger et al, Cognitive distortions are associated with increasing political polarization, Communications Psychology (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s44271-025-00289-4

**

Global analysis finds 14.8 million life-years added by COVID-19 vaccinations

A Stanford University-led investigation into the COVID-19 vaccination effort reports that it averted an estimated 2.533 million deaths and 14.8 million life-years worldwide between 2020 and 2024.

Amidst much controversy in the public sphere, a worldwide vaccination campaign took place to counter the novel and deadly COVID-19 virus as it spread to every corner of the globe. As the pandemic spread, so did misinformation, disinformation, and real-time updates on risk and prevention that occasionally changed as events unfolded.

Around 7 million people died as a direct result of the virus. Estimating the human toll prevented by vaccines remains a crucial question, both for  public education and for future public health planning.

In the study, "Global Estimates of Lives and Life-Years Saved by COVID-19 Vaccination During 2020-2024," published in JAMA Health Forum, researchers conducted a comparative-effectiveness analysis to quantify life-saving effects attributable to vaccination from December 2020 through October 1, 2024.

Nearly 8 billion individuals (the 2021 world population) served as the study cohort, partitioned by seven age tiers: community versus long-term-care residence, and pre-omicron versus omicron periods.

Investigators estimated deaths averted by multiplying stratum-specific population, projected infection proportion, infection fatality rate, and vaccine effectiveness; life-year gains combined those results with life expectancy and a health-status adjustment factor.

Findings show 2.533 million lives saved, equating to one death averted per 5,400 vaccine doses. Life-year gains reached 14.8 million, or one life-year per 900 doses.

Part 1

About 82% of deaths averted occurred among individuals vaccinated before any infection and 57% during the omicron period. Persons aged 60 years or older accounted for 89.6% of lives saved, with children and adolescents contributing just 0.01%. Sensitivity analyses yielded a range of 1.4–4.0 million deaths and 7.4–23.6 million life-years saved.

Life-year benefits tracked a similar age gradient with individuals over 60 making up 76% of the total years saved, with negligible contributions (<0.5 %) from those under 30. Long‑term‑care residents, who accounted for 11.8 % of deaths averted, only added 2% to life‑years saved. Authors conclude that vaccination offered a clear mortality benefit during 2020–2024, largely among older adults, and describe their estimates as conservative.

John P. A. Ioannidis et al, Global Estimates of Lives and Life-Years Saved by COVID-19 Vaccination During 2020-2024, JAMA Health Forum (2025). DOI: 10.1001/jamahealthforum.2025.2223

Part 2

Early human ancestors showed extreme size differences between males and females

A newly published study has found that males of some of our earliest known ancestors were significantly larger than females. The pronounced difference in body size present in both Australopithecus afarensis (the East African species that includes the famous fossil "Lucy") and A. africanus (a closely related southern African species) suggests the ancient hominins may have lived in social systems marked by intense competition among males, leading to the substantial size disparity among the sexes.

The research  appears in the July issue of the American Journal of Biological Anthropology. Using a novel approach that overcomes the limitations of incomplete fossil records, the study reveals that both A. afarensis and A. africanus were more sexually dimorphic than modern humans—and in some cases, even more than gorillas.

These weren't modest differences. In the case of A. afarensis, males were dramatically larger than females—possibly more so than in any living great ape. And although both of these extinct hominin species exhibited greater sex-specific size differences than modern humans do, they were also more different from each other in this respect than living ape species are, suggesting a greater diversity of evolutionary pressures acting on these closely related species than we had previously appreciated.

The results add new depth to interpretations of the fossil record. Earlier studies had reached differing conclusions about dimorphism in A. afarensis, with some suggesting it resembled the relatively low levels seen in modern humans. Furthermore, direct comparison between fossil species had not previously been made because investigations were limited by incomplete fossil samples and insufficient statistical power to detect real differences.

This analysis overcomes these issues by using an iterative resampling method that mimics the missing data structure in both fossil species when sampling from skeletal material of living species, allowing the inclusion of multiple fossil individuals even when those individual specimens are fragmentary.

This study provides strong evidence that sex-specific evolutionary pressures—likely involving both male competition for mates and resource stress acting more intensely on female size due to the metabolic constraints of pregnancy and lactation—played a larger role in early hominin evolution than previously thought. 

Part 1

Sexual size dimorphism (SSD) isn't just a physical trait—it reveals something deeper about behavior and evolutionary strategy. Consistent with sexual selection theory, high SSD in living primates typically correlates with strong male–male competition and social structures allowing for polygynous mating systems, where one or a few large males monopolize reproductive access to multiple females.

In contrast, low SSD can be found in any species, but tends to be found in those with pair-bonded social structures and low competition for mating opportunities. Modern human populations exhibit low to moderate SSD, where males tend to be slightly larger than females on average but with substantial overlap in size between the sexes.

High SSD in living primates can also be associated with intense resource stress—when food is scarce, small healthy females can get enough food to meet their own metabolic needs and store energy for reproduction faster than larger females can, leading to more offspring with smaller mothers in the next generation and a resulting greater difference in male and female size.

The high SSD identified in both Australopithecus species suggests a high degree of competition among males, similar to that of chimpanzees or even gorillas, while the difference between the two fossil species may be due to a difference in the intensity of those forces of sexual selection and/or a difference in the intensity of resource stress in their environments (e.g., a difference in the length of dry seasons with low fruit availability) and its impact on female body size.

In any event, the high SSD in these fossil hominins contrasts sharply with the more balanced size seen in modern humans and offers a glimpse into a different model of early hominin life—one where large size may have been a key factor in male reproductive success for competitive reasons, and small size may have been a key factor for females for energetic reasons.

Part 2

Australopithecus afarensis, which lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago, is widely regarded as either a direct ancestor of modern humans or a species very closely related to a direct ancestor.

Yet, its high degree of sexual dimorphism suggests that early hominins may have lived in social systems that were far more hierarchical and competitive than once thought.

Meanwhile, the less dimorphic A. africanus—which overlapped in time with A. afarensis but first shows up and last appears in the fossil record slightly later, between roughly 3.3 and 2.1 million years ago—may represent a different evolutionary branch on the hominin tree, or perhaps a transitional stage in the development of more human-like social behavior.
We typically place these early hominins together in a single group called the gracile australopiths, a group of species that are thought to have interacted with their physical and social environments in very similar ways.
while that's true to a certain extent—the evidence suggests that both these species may have had social organizations more like gorillas than modern people—the significant difference in the amount of dimorphism in these two extinct species suggests that these closely related hominin species were subject to selection pressures more distinct than the selection pressures applied to any pair of similarly closely related living ape species, highlighting the diversity of ways that our extinct ancestors and close relatives interacted with the world.

 Adam D. Gordon, Sexual Size Dimorphism in Australopithecus: Postcranial Dimorphism Differs Significantly Among Australopithecusafarensis, A. africanus, and Modern Humans Despite Low‐Power Resampling Analyses, American Journal of Biological Anthropology (2025). DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.70093

Part 3

Aging dampens lupus by reducing overactive immune genes in older adults

 Researchers have found that certain antiviral genes become less active over time in lupus, revealing why some patients see their symptoms fade as they age.

Lupus, an autoimmune disease, causes the immune system's first-line viral defenses—known as interferons—to attack the body. Nearly every organ is at risk, leading to conditions like kidney and heart disease.

But unlike many other autoimmune or chronic illnesses, lupus can improve as patients reach their 60s and 70s.

By analyzing blood samples from patients across the age spectrum, scientists discovered that aging turns down the activity of certain immune genes in people with lupus, leading to fewer interferons and other inflammatory proteins in the body.

The study found that in healthy adults, inflammation-related genes and proteins rose slowly over the years, a process that has been dubbed "inflammaging." In patients with lupus, however, the expression of these genes and proteins was abnormally high in midlife but decreased as the decades went by.

"Inflammaging seemed to be reversed in the lupus patients", say the researchers.

"But it wasn't fully reversed. The lupus patients still had a greater level of inflammatory signaling compared to healthy adults in older age."

Rithwik Narendra et al, Epigenetic attenuation of interferon signaling is associated with aging-related improvements in systemic lupus erythematosus, Science Translational Medicine (2025). DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adt5550

The brain clocks sickness from a mile off

The brain fires up immune cells when sick people are nearby

At the mere sight of a sick person, the brain kickstarts an immune response mimicking the body’s response to an actual infection. In a study, volunteers donned virtual reality headsets to view human avatars with rashes, coughs or other symptoms of illness. Researchers found that the sight of a sick person activates the brain’s ‘salience network’: a collection of regions involved in recognizing and responding to threats. This activity triggered a surge in innate lymphoid cells, which are part of the body’s first line of defence against invaders.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-025-02008-y?utm_source=Live+...

'One and done': A single shot at birth may shield children from HIV for years

A new study in Nature shows that delivering a single injection of gene therapy at birth may offer years-long protection against HIV, tapping into a critical window in early life that could reshape the fight against pediatric infections in high-risk regions.

This study is among the first to show that the first weeks of life, when the immune system is naturally more tolerant, may be the optimal window for delivering gene therapies that would otherwise be rejected at older ages.

In the study, nonhuman primates received a gene therapy that programs cells to continuously produce HIV-fighting antibodies. Timing proved critical to the one-time treatment offering long-term protection.

Those that received the treatment within their first month of life were protected from infection for at least three years with no need for a booster, potentially signifying coverage into adolescence in humans. In contrast, those treated at 8–12 weeks showed a more developed, less tolerant immune system that did not accept the treatment as effectively.

As long as the treatment is delivered close to birth, the baby's immune system will accept it and believe it's part of itself.

Mauricio Martins, Determinants of successful AAV delivery of HIV-1 bNAbs in early life, Nature (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-025-09330-2. www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09330-2

Anticipation of a virtual infectious pathogen is enough to prompt real biological defenses

Researchers  report that neural anticipation of virtual infection triggers an immune response through activation of innate lymphoid cells.

Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a type of immune cell crucial for early immune responses. They do not rely on antigen recognition like adaptive immune cells but respond quickly and effectively to various inflammatory signals and pathogen-associated cues, playing an essential role in early defense.

Protecting the body from pathogens typically involves a multitude of responses after actual contact. An anticipatory biological immune reaction to an infection had not been previously demonstrated.

In the study, "Neural anticipation of virtual infection triggers an immune response," published in Nature Neuroscience, researchers designed a multisensory experiment to test whether human brains could anticipate potential infections through virtual reality (VR) and initiate early immune system reactions.

Participants in the experiments conducted exposed to infectious avatars showed an expansion of peripersonal space (PPS) effects, measurable as faster reaction times to tactile stimulation even at farther avatar distances. EEG analyses, performed on a separate group of 32 participants, revealed anticipatory neural responses in multisensory-motor areas and activation within the salience network, particularly the anterior insula and medial prefrontal cortex.

ILCs were significantly modulated in frequency and activation by virtual infections, resembling immune reactions to real pathogens, assessed through comparison with an influenza vaccine cohort. Specifically, both virtual and real infections induced decreases in ILC1s and increases in ILC2s and ILC precursors, indicative of active immune mobilization.

Researchers concluded that the human immune system activates not only after physical contact but also when infection threats breach the functional boundary of body-environment interaction, represented by PPS. This anticipatory neuro-immune mechanism would have advantages, enabling rapid responses to potential infections, even in virtual contexts.

Sara Trabanelli et al, Neural anticipation of virtual infection triggers an immune response, Nature Neuroscience (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41593-025-02008-y

Deepest-known animal communities found nearly 10 km below sea in Mariana Trench

A submersible has discovered thousands of worms and mollusks nearly 10 kilometers (six miles) below sea level in the Mariana Trench, the deepest colony of creatures ever observed, a study revealed this week.

The discovery in Earth's deepest underwater valley suggests that there could be much more life thriving in the hostile conditions at the bottom of our planet's largely unexplored oceans than previously thought,  scientists said.

The study marked "the discovery of the deepest and the most extensive chemosynthesis-based communities known to exist on Earth.

The researchers who conducted this study  said they also found "compelling evidence" that methane was being produced by microbes, with the tubeworms tending to cluster around microbial mats that resemble snow.

Xiaotong Peng et al, Flourishing chemosynthetic life at the greatest depths of hadal trenches, Nature (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-025-09317-z

Just now I received this information from the initiators of this Prize and I am sharing this with the followers of this network

₹20 Crore National Science Prizes Launched to Champion India’s Leading Scientific Talent

 

• The initiative was announced by Catalyst funder, Blockchain for Impact, under the aegis of Sandeep Nailwal Academy
• It seeks to incentivize high-impact scientific research and honour distinguished innovators across disciplines, supporting India’s strategic commitment to fostering a robust and globally competitive research ecosystem.

 

New Delhi, 30 July 2025, Wednesday: In a pivotal initiative to strengthen India’s scientific research landscape, Blockchain For Impact, a catalyst funder and non-profit, has today announced the launch of National Science Prizes, with a total allocation of ₹20 crore. These prestigious awards are designed to incentivize groundbreaking research and celebrate exceptional contributions by scientists and innovators across diverse disciplines for India. By recognizing excellence and fostering a culture of innovation, the initiative supports the nation’s strategic commitment to advancing science and technology as key drivers of economic and societal progress.

Established by Sandeep Nailwal,  a young tech entrepreneur, innovator, and philanthropist - the National Science Prizes reflect his deep commitment to advancing India’s scientific potential and his steadfast intent to give back to the nation.

The awards will be distributed across the following categories ; the Lifetime Achievement Award to two distinguished individuals for their profound contributions to science and health, with each receiving Rs 25 lakh; the Sandeep Nailwal India First Award, supporting three Indian-origin or global researchers, entrepreneurs, and innovators relocating to India to scale solutions in biomedical science or public health, each granted Rs 2.5 crore; the Sandeep Nailwal Award for Global Excellence, given to two individuals whose work has globally reshaped biomedical research and public health, with each awarded Rs 5 crore; and the Sandeep Nailwal Award for Young Indian Scientist Award, recognizing two biomedical scientists, public health pioneers, and cross-sector changemakers under 40 who have built transformative solutions, each receiving Rs 50 lakh.

Using a fan can make older adults hotter in a dry heat

Research has found that older adults using an electric fan at 38 °C and 60% relative humidity experienced a modest fall in core temperature and greater comfort. Fan use at 45 °C and 15% relative humidity raised core temperature and increased discomfort.

CDC guidance warns against fan use above 32 °C because of concerns that added airflow could speed heat gain in vulnerable groups. Modeling studies and small laboratory trials have hinted that airflow may help when humidity is high, but effects at very high temperatures in older adults have remained uncertain. Older individuals face elevated heat-related morbidity, creating an urgent need for practical, low-cost cooling ideas.

In the study, "Thermal and Perceptual Responses of Older Adults With Fan Use in Heat Extremes," published in JAMA Network Open, researchers performed a secondary analysis of a randomized crossover clinical trial to test how fan use and skin wetting influence core temperature, sweating, and thermal perception during extreme-heat exposures.

Study investigators conclude that electric fans can serve as a safe, low-cost cooling option for older adults during hot, humid weather at 38 °C, but should be avoided in very hot, dry conditions. Simple skin wetting offers an additional means to manage heat stress while limiting dehydration. Public health agencies may use these findings to refine summer heat-safety messages for seniors.

Georgia K. Chaseling et al, Thermal and Perceptual Responses of Older Adults With Fan Use in Heat Extremes, JAMA Network Open (2025). DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.23810

Car tires are polluting the environment and killing salmon

In the 1990s, scientists restoring streams around Seattle, Wash., noticed that returning coho salmon were dying after rainstorms. The effects were immediate: the fish swam in circles, gasping at the surface, then died in a few hours. Over the next several decades, researchers chipped away at the problem until in 2020 they discovered the culprit: a chemical called 6PPD-quinone that forms when its parent compound, a tire additive called 6PPD, reacts with ozone.

6PPD-quinone kills coho salmon at extraordinarily low concentrations, making it one of the most toxic substances to an aquatic species that scientists have ever found.

Today, a growing body of evidence shows that tire additives and their transformation products, including 6PPD-quinone, are contaminating ecosystems and showing up in people.

Now,  the researchers who made that initial discovery are calling for international regulation of these chemicals to protect people and the environment.

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.estlett.5c00453

Where did potatoes come from? Scientists answer this question in a new research work

Modern-day potato originated from hybridization event with tomatoes 9 million years ago, study reveals

An international research team has uncovered that natural interbreeding in the wild between tomato plants and potato-like species from South America about 9 million years ago gave rise to the modern-day potato.

In a study published in the journal Cell, researchers suggest this ancient evolutionary event triggered the formation of the tuber, the enlarged underground structure that stores nutrients found in plants like potatoes, yams, and taros.

These findings show how a hybridization event between species can spark the evolution of new traits, allowing even more species to emerge. 

As one of the world's most important crops, the potato's origin had long puzzled scientists. In appearance, modern potato plants are almost identical to three potato-like species from Chile called Etuberosum. But these plants do not carry tubers. Based on phylogenetic analysis, potato plants are more closely related to tomatoes.

To solve this contradiction, researchers analyzed 450 genomes from cultivated potatoes and 56 of the wild potato species.

They found that every potato species contained a stable, balanced mix of genetic material from both Etuberosum and tomato plants, suggesting that potatoes originated from an ancient hybridization between the two.

While Etuberosum and tomatoes are distinct species, they shared a common ancestor about 14 million years ago. Even after diverging for about 5 million years, they were able to interbreed and gave rise to the earliest potato plants with tubers around 9 million years ago.

The team also traced the origins of the potato's key tuber-forming genes, which are a combination of genetic material from each parent. They found the SP6A gene, which acts like a master switch that tells the plant when to start making tubers, came from the tomato side of the family. Another important gene called IT1, which helps control growth of the underground stems that form tubers, came from the Etuberosum side. Without either piece, the hybrid offspring would be incapable of producing tubers.

This evolutionary innovation coincided with the rapid uplift of the Andes mountains, a period when new ecological environments were emerging. With a tuber to store nutrients underground, early potatoes were able to quickly adapt to the changing environment, surviving harsh weather in the mountains.

 Ancient hybridization underlies tuberization and radiation of the potato lineage, Cell (2025). DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.06.034. www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00736-6

Changes in diet drove physical evolution in early humans

As early humans spread from lush African forests into grasslands, their need for ready sources of energy led them to develop a taste for grassy plants, especially grains and the starchy plant tissue hidden underground.

But a new study  shows that hominins began feasting on these carbohydrate-rich foods before they had the ideal teeth to do so. The study provides the first evidence from the human fossil record of behavioral drive, wherein behaviors beneficial for survival emerge before the physical adaptations that make it easier, the researchers report in Science.

The study authors analyzed fossilized hominin teeth for carbon and oxygen isotopes left behind from eating plants known as graminoids, which include grasses and sedges. They found that ancient humans gravitated toward consuming these plants far earlier than their teeth evolved to chew them efficiently. It was not until 700,000 years later that evolution finally caught up, in the form of longer molars like those that let modern humans easily chew tough plant fibers.

The findings suggest that the success of early humans stemmed from their ability to adapt to new environments despite their physical limitations.

Isotope analysis overcomes the enduring challenge of identifying the factors that caused the emergence of new behaviors—behavior doesn't fossilize.

Anthropologists often assume behaviors on the basis of morphological traits, but these traits can take a long time—a half-million years or more––to appear in the fossil record.

These chemical signatures are an unmistakable remnant of grass-eating that is independent of morphology. They show a significant lag between this novel feeding behavior and the need for longer molar teeth to meet the physical challenge of chewing and digesting tough plant tissues.

 Luke D. Fannin et al, Behavior drives morphological change during human evolution, Science (2025). DOI: 10.1126/science.ado2359. www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado2359.

Microplastics Alter Predator Preferences of Prey through Associative Learning

Exposure to microplastics can give roundworms (Caenorhabditis elegans) a taste for plastic-contaminated food.

When given the choice of plastic-laced or uncontaminated food, worms initially opted for the cleaner option. But after a few generations of worms were exposed to contaminated food, they developed an attraction to contaminated food. This behavior wasn’t seen in mutated worms that had a learning deficit, meaning that the preference for plastic was probably learned and passed down across generations.

https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.estlett.5c00492

Exposure to microplastic makes animals want to eat it more

Over multiple generations, small nematode worms began preferring microplastic-contaminated food over cleaner options, which could have consequences for ecosystem health

https://www.newscientist.com/article/2488923-exposure-to-microplast...

COVID and flu can ‘wake up’ cancer
Common respiratory illnesses such as COVID-19 or flu can awaken dormant cancer cells in mice. When a tumour grows, some cells can detach, travel round the body and ‘hide’ in tissues such as the lungs after treatment. Researchers found that the release of an immune molecule called interleukin-6, triggered by respiratory illnesses, wakes up these dormant cells — but only for a short time. This means that the infections do not directly cause cancer, but make it more likely that a future threat could revive the disease.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09332-0?utm_source=Live+...

Scientists shrink the genetic code of E. coli to contain only 57 of its usual 64 codons

The DNA of nearly all life on Earth contains many redundancies, and scientists have long wondered whether these redundancies served a purpose or if they were just leftovers from evolutionary processes. Both DNA and RNA contain codons, which are sequences of three nucleotides that either provide information about how to form a protein with a specific amino acid or tell the cell to stop (a stop signal) during protein synthesis.

Altogether, there are 64 possible codon combinations and these combinations are nearly universal for all life on Earth. But some codons are redundant. There are only 20 amino acids available for a cell to work with, and 61 of the 64 codons are available for protein synthesis, while 3 are used as stop signals. This makes for a lot of redundancy in codons.

Some studies suggest that these redundancies might help prevent mutations in DNA, but reducing the genetic code of certain organisms by removing unnecessary parts can also be beneficial. In 2019, a group of scientists reduced the genome of E. coli to 61 codons from 64 by making 18,214 changes. They called the resulting version Syn61 and this virus-resistant version is being used to create more reliable drugs and for manufacturing novel materials.

Now, another group of scientists, some of whom worked on Syn61, have managed to further reduce the genetic code of E. coli down to 57 codons, making Syn57. They recently published their work in Science.

Part 1

This further reduction was a massive effort to take on. The team made over 101,000 codon changes by dividing up the genome into 38 sections and meticulously swapping out redundant codons with synonymous codons—those that perform the same function. Each time a swap was made, the researchers had to determine if the swap would be detrimental to the viability of the bacteria before moving on.

Mapping and fixing at each stage of the synthesis was often crucial to enabling the next step of the synthesis. These experiments provide a paradigm for integrating 'just in time' defect mapping and fixing of initial designs into synthetic schemes, such that local defects are identified and fixed early in the synthesis and longer range, potentially epistatic or synthetic lethal, defects are identified and fixed as they emerge in the assembly process.

In the end, the research team successfully shortened the genetic code to 57 codons by replacing six sense codons and a stop codon with synonymous codons. The resulting bacteria made with the new code were indeed a living organism, but the researchers found that they grow around four times slower than the parent strain—a problem they hope to eventually fix. However, the new strain shows a distinct gene expression profile, which indicates broad physiological adaptation.

Some possible applications of this new strain include virus-resistant organisms for biotechnology and industry, and the synthesis of proteins and polymers with new properties. Overall, the researchers are optimistic about the potential for this new strain. Their work also raises questions about whether there are limits to reducing the number of codons or creating organisms with entirely novel biochemistries.

Wesley E. Robertson et al, Escherichia coli with a 57-codon genetic code, Science (2025). DOI: 10.1126/science.ady4368

Part 2

When immune commanders misfire: New insights into rheumatoid arthritis inflammation

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the lining of the joints (the synovium), causing pain, swelling, and progressive damage. Approximately 18 million people worldwide live with RA. Early diagnosis and treatment can relieve symptoms, slow disease progression, and help prevent disability.

Current therapies focus on reducing inflammation and preserving joint function, but up to 30% of patients do not respond well. This underscores the pressing need to better understand its pathology for early diagnosis and the development of more effective therapies.

Helper T cells are a type of white blood cell that act as the "commanders" of the immune system. They play a crucial role by recognizing threats and coordinating immune responses. However, in autoimmune diseases like RA, these commanders become dysregulated and cause the immune system to attack the body's own tissues.

Although helper T cells are known to be major players in RA, the precise molecular mechanisms driving inflammation are still unclear.

Part 1

Now, researchers have discovered a primate-specific cytokine called IGFL2, produced by a subset of helper T cells known as peripheral helper T (Tph) cells in the joints of patients with RA.

Their findings, published in Science Immunology, suggest that IGFL2 helps regulate inflammation in the synovial tissue of affected joints and could serve as both a marker of disease activity and a promising target for new therapies.
Using gene expression data from single-cell analysis and clinical information, researchers analyzed individual helper T cells from the joint tissue of patients with RA. They identified a distinct subgroup known as Tph cells, which are closely linked to more severe disease.

Notably, these cells produce IGFL2 (Insulin-like Growth Factor-Like Family Member 2), a cytokine found only in primates. IGFL2 was exclusively expressed in helper T cells within synovial tissue, with the highest levels seen in Tph cells.

The researchers then explored how IGFL2 drives inflammation in RA. They found that IGFL2 boosts the production of a protein called CXCL13, which promotes the production of autoantibodies. Additionally, IGFL2 activates immune cells known as monocytes and macrophages, further amplifying inflammation and joint damage. This is supported by the fact that blocking IGFL2 reduces the activation of these cells.

To assess its clinical relevance, the team measured IGFL2 levels in blood samples from patients with RA. IGFL2 levels were much higher in patients compared to healthy individuals, and even higher in those with more severe symptoms. Its ability to distinguish patients with RA from healthy individuals was similar to commonly used diagnostic markers.

Taken together, these findings suggest that IGFL2 is not just a marker of disease activity but may also actively drive inflammation in RA, making it a promising target for new treatments.
Because this gene is unique to primates, this discovery wouldn't have been possible using conventional animal models like mice or rats.

Human CD4+ T cells regulate peripheral immune responses in rheumatoid arthritis via insulin-like growth factor like family member 2, Science Immunology (2025). DOI: 10.1126/sciimmunol.adr3838

Part 2

A baby boy from a nearly 31-year-old frozen embryo

A baby boy born last week to a couple developed from an embryo that had been frozen for more than 30 years in what is believed to be the longest storage time before a birth.

In what's known as embryo adoption, Linda and Tim Pierce used a handful of embryos donated in 1994 in pursuit of having a child after fighting infertility for years. Their son was born Saturday from an embryo that had been in storage for 11,148 days, which their  doctor says sets a record.

According to Dr. John David Gordon, the transfer of the nearly 31-year-old embryo marks the longest-frozen embryo to result in a live birth.

Source: News agencies

Spider Venom Prevents Tissue Damage After Heart Attack and Stroke

Researchers are using peptides isolated from spider venom to develop treatments for a range of neurological and cardiovascular disorders.

 While a handful of spider venoms are deadly to humans, most are not, and many can be incredibly useful.

Biochemists discovered chemical compounds that can be used to treat stroke, cardiovascular disease, epilepsy, pain, and many more diseases over the years. They  began to realize that these venoms were extremely complex, and most of the compounds in them targeted a class of receptors called ion channels.

Ion channels are the second most common target of all currently available drugs, and they play a role in a range of diseases—primarily nervous system disorders. Many ion channels are very hard to target with small molecules. They're very complex, and they don't have a lot of real estate outside of the cell membrane, so they're really hard to target with antibodies.

So they  decided that they should use the gold mine of spider venom peptides that target these receptors to develop human therapeutics. 

Out of  the peptides they tested 's web spider’s venom stood out in initial screens against relevant ion channels. 

They found that when they delivered it two or four hours after a stroke, they could reduce the brain damage by 80 percent.

In an ischemic stroke, the oxygen supply to cells and tissues of the brain is cut off, which results in a more acidic pH within the affected tissues. This lower pH activates the acid-sensing ion channel 1a (ASIC1a), which in turn causes cell death and permanent tissue damage. By blocking ASIC1a, the Hi1a prevents brain damage progression following an ischemic stroke—even up to eight hours after the event.

Then they went on to show that they could reduce the injury after a heart attack using [Hi1a] as well. 

Saez NJ, et al. Spider-venom peptides as therapeutics. Toxins. 2010;2(12):2851-2871.

Jiang Y, et al. Pharmacological inhibition of the voltage-gated sodium channel NaV1.... ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci. 2021;4(4):1362-1378.

Scientists design superdiamonds with theoretically predicted hexagonal crystal structure

The brilliantly shiny diamond is more than just pretty; it's one of the hardest minerals on Earth, with a name derived from the Greek word adámas, meaning unbreakable. Scientists have now engineered a harder form of diamond known as bulk hexagonal diamond (HD)—a crystalline structure that has been theorized for over half a century to have physical properties superior to those of conventional diamond.

In a study published in Nature, researchers  synthesized bulk hexagonal diamond, ranging from 100-µm-sized to mm-sized, with a highly ordered structure by compressing and heating high-quality graphite single crystals under pressure conditions as uniform as possible.

The designed material, which was recoverable under ambient conditions, unveiled the previously elusive structural world of HD, opening new avenues for exploring its potential as a technologically superior material.

 Liuxiang Yang et al, Synthesis of bulk hexagonal diamond, Nature (2025). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-025-09343-x

Scientists produce quantum entanglement-like results without entangled particles in new experiment

In the everyday world that humans experience, objects behave in a predictable way, explained by classical physics. One of the important aspects of classical physics is that nothing travels faster than the speed of light. Even information is subject to this rule. However, in the 1930s, scientists discovered that very small particles abide by some very different rules. One of the more mind-boggling behaviors exhibited by these particles was quantum entanglement—which Albert Einstein termed "spooky action at a distance."

In quantum entanglement, two particles can become entangled—meaning their properties are correlated with each other and measuring these properties will always give you opposite results (i.e., if one is oriented up, the other must be down). The strange part is that you still get correlated measurements instantaneously, even if these particles are very far away from each other.

If information cannot travel faster than the speed of light, then there should not be a way for one particle to immediately know the state of the other. This "spooky" quantum property is referred to as "nonlocality"—exhibiting effects that should not be possible at large distances in classical mechanics.

Up until recently, it was thought that only entangled particles could exhibit this nonlocality. But a new study, published in Science Advances, has used Bell's inequality to test whether nonlocal quantum correlations can arise from other non-entanglement quantum features.

The experiment used photons generated by laser light hitting a particular type of crystal in such a way that it is impossible to determine their source. The setup ensures that the photons cannot become entangled before their detection at two separate detectors. The researchers used Bell's inequality to determine if the experiment resulted in violations of local realism.

According to their calculations, the experiment resulted in a violation of the Bell inequality, exceeding the threshold by more than four standard deviations. This kind of violation using unentangled photons had not been seen before. The researchers say these violations of Bell's inequality arise from a property called quantum indistinguishability by path identity, instead of entanglement.

This work establishes a connection between quantum correlation and quantum indistinguishability, providing insights into the fundamental origin of the counterintuitive characteristics observed in quantum physics, the study authors write.

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While this work might be groundbreaking, there are still some possible issues that need to be ironed out in future studies. For example, the experiment relies on post selection—where only certain photons are detected, possibly giving misleading results.

Another possible issue comes from a locality loophole due to the phase settings of the detectors not being separated properly. However, the study authors are aware of this study's limitations and are eager to find fixes to these issues and try again.

 Kai Wang et al, Violation of Bell inequality with unentangled photons, Science Advances (2025). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adr1794

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