Memory details fade over time, with only the main gist preserved

What information is retained in a memory over time, and which parts get lost? These questions have led to many scientific theories over the years, and now a team of researchers  have been able to provide some answers.

Their new study, which is published today in Nature Communications, demonstrates that our memories become less vibrant and detailed over time, with only the central gist eventually preserved. Moreover, this 'gistification' of our memories is boosted when we frequently recall our recent experiences.

Nature Communications (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23288-5

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The work could have implications in a number of areas, including the nature of memories in post-traumatic stress disorder, the repeated questioning of eye-witness testimonies and even in best practice for exam studying.

While memories are not exact carbon copies of the past—remembering is understood to be a highly reconstructive process—experts have suggested that the contents of a memory could change each time we bring it back to mind.

However, exactly how our memories differ from the original experiences, and how they are transformed over time, has until now proven difficult to measure in laboratory settings.

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-05-memory-main-gist.html?utm_so...

153 years after discovery of the immune system's dendritic cells, scientists uncover a new subset

When pathogens invade or tumor cells emerge, the immune system is alerted by danger signals that summon a key battalion of first responders, the unsung heroes of the immune system—a population of starfish-shaped sentinels called dendritic cells.

Without them, coordination of the immune response would be slower and less-well organized. Yet even in the face of such an indispensable role, it has taken until now to discover how a sub-population of these cells doesn't perish after completing their primary job in the immune system.

Dendritic cells were discovered in 1868, and at that time were misunderstood and wrongly categorized as members of the nervous system. But immunologists now know there are different types of these cells, even though they all look alike and have roughly the same job as sentinels in the immune system –on patrol 24/7, hunting down infiltrating causes of infection and disease. What separates one group from another, scientists in Germany have just found, is their response to certain signaling molecules and how long they survive in tissues and the blood.

First off, the shape is no accident of nature. It allows these cells to perform their primary role, which involves obtaining microscopic samples—antigens—from an infiltrator slated for destruction. Dendritic cells engulf snippets of the invader and literally present those antigens to key warriors of the immune system.

These highly mobile cells travel to sites where disease-killing immune cells reside to present their samples, introducing T cells, for example, to the enemy that awaits. Formally, the activity of presenting the sample to T cells is called antigen presentation. For all the work involved with alerting the body to danger, a major group of dendritic cells is programmed to die after a job well done.

Now, in a groundbreaking series of studies, a large team of researchers from throughout Germany has discovered why a unique population of dendritic cells doesn't die after antigen presentation. The sub-population continues to stimulate parts of the immune system to aid the fight against invasive viruses, bacteria or potentially deadly tumour cells.

Lukas Hatscher et al. Select hyperactivating NLRP3 ligands enhance the TH1- and TH17-inducing potential of human type 2 conventional dendritic cells, Science Signaling (2021) DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.abe1757

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-05-years-discovery-immune-dendr...

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Biologists construct a 'periodic table' for cell nuclei

One hundred fifty years ago, Dmitri Mendeleev created the periodic table, a system for classifying atoms based on the properties of their nuclei. This week, a team of biologists studying the tree of life has unveiled a new classification system for cell nuclei and discovered a method for transmuting one type of cell nucleus into another.

Scientists had been working together to classify how chromosomes, which can be several meters long, fold up to fit inside the nuclei of different species from across the tree of life.

The team realized it was just seeing variants on two overall nuclear designs. In some species, chromosomes are organized like the pages of a printed newspaper, with the outer margins on one side and the folded middle at the other. And then in other species, each chromosome is crumpled into a little ball.

The data implied that over the course of evolution, species can switch back and forth from one type to the other.

 Computer simulations showed that by destroying condensin II ( a protein that plays a role in how cells divide), you could make a human nucleus reorganize to resemble a fly nucleus.

"3D genomics across the tree of life reveals condensin II as a determinant of architecture type" Science (2021). science.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi … 1126/science.abe2218

https://phys.org/news/2021-05-biologists-periodic-table-cell-nuclei...

How plants ward off a dangerous world of pathogens

The world's plants, immobile and rooted in soil which contains potentially lethal micro-organisms, face a constant threat from invading pathogens. In recent years, however, scientists have discovered that plant species employ sophisticated immune strategies that differ from —but also shares similarities with—the ways humans combat infections.

Now scientists describe a key molecular "on-off" switch that enables plants to mobilize immunity in the face of microbial pathogens. The findings not only have direct implications for crop management and possibly protecting plants from the effects of climate change, but also for better understanding the human immune system as well.

Plants  have many innate immune gene families that are similar to ours, and historically plants have been used to establish fundamental principles of host defenses and disease tolerance.

Unlike humans, plants lack an adaptive immune system that "remembers" specific pathogens and then organizes a tailored defense. In the study, researchers explored the sophisticated cell-autonomous defense programs that plants do employ against pathogens. It turns out that what they lack in tailored antibodies, they make up for by greatly expanding their repertoire of innate immune responses, which mount a more generalized defense against all infections.

For instance, one of these strategies involves innate immune proteins that morph into a "gel-like" state in order to trigger immune responses. This process—called liquid-liquid phase separation—enables biological activities to be concentrated in membrane-less compartments inside cells. The researchers discovered that plant immune proteins, known as guanylate-binding protein-like (GBPL) GTPases, create liquid-like compartments within the nucleus that creates a concentration of proteins that drive the activity of host defense genes during infection. This phase-separated compartment also excludes inhibitory proteins to the outside of the nucleus as part of a spatially separated "on-off" switch.

Liquid-liquid phase separation is a new frontier in understanding how cells compartmentalize their biological activities.

All organisms, from single-celled bacteria to plants  to humans, defend their genome from outside threats. "Phase-separation may be a pervasive evolutionary mechanism to organize these defense activities as part of the cell-autonomous immune response."

Shuai Huang et al, A phase-separated nuclear GBPL circuit controls immunity in plants, Nature (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03572-6

https://phys.org/news/2021-05-ward-dangerous-world-pathogens.html?u...

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Global study of 60 cities' microbes finds each has a signature microbial fingerprint

An international consortium has reported the largest-ever global metagenomic study of urban microbiomes, spanning both the air and the surfaces of multiple cities. The international project, which sequenced and analyzed samples collected from public transit systems and hospitals in 60 cities around the world, features comprehensive analysis and annotation for all the microbial species identified—including thousands of viruses and bacteria and two archaea not found in reference databases. The study appears May 26 in the journal Cell.

Every city has its own 'molecular echo' of the microbes that define it.

The findings are based on 4,728 samples from cities on six continents taken over the course of three years, characterize regional antimicrobial resistance markers, and represent the first systematic worldwide catalogue of the urban microbial ecosystem. In addition to distinct microbial signatures in various cities, the analysis revealed a core set of 31 species that were found in 97% of samples across the sampled urban areas. The researchers identified 4,246 known species of urban microorganisms, but they also found that any subsequent sampling will still likely continue to find species that have never been seen before, which highlights the raw potential for discoveries related to microbial diversity and biological functions awaiting in urban environments.

Cell, Danko et al.: "A global metagenomic map of urban microbiomes and antimicrobial resistance" www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(21)00585-7 , DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.05.002

A related paper ("Characterization of the public transit air microbiome and resistome reveals geographical specificity") publishes in the journal Microbiome on May 26.

https://phys.org/news/2021-05-global-cities-microbes-signature-micr...

Research team discovers that it takes some heat to form ice on grap...

In a paper published in Nature Communications, the research team details the complex physical processes at work to understand the chemistry of ice formation. The molecular-level perspective of this process may help in predicting the formation and melting of ice, from individual crystals to glaciers and ice sheets. The latter being crucial to quantify environmental transformation in connection with climate change and global warming.

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Virus transmission: New animation gives insight to viral spread

How can an influenza virus transfer from animals to humans even though the molecules on which they land at the cell surface are different? To find out, researchers of the University of Twente developed a sensor chip that mimics the cell surface and has an increasing number of binding sites along the way. The virus rolls across the surface until the binding is strong enough. For visualizing and better understanding of the mechanisms involved, the researchers created an animation, together with Dutch veterinary lab Royal GD.

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Cell mechanics research is making chemotherapy friendlier

Malignant tumor cells undergo mechanical deformation more easily than normal cells, allowing them to migrate throughout the body. The mechanical properties of prostate cancer cells treated with the most commonly used anti-cancer drugs have been investigated at the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Cracow. According to the researchers, current drugs can be used more effectively and at lower doses.

Research team discovers that it takes some heat to form ice on graphene

In a paper published in Nature Communications, the research team details the complex physical processes at work to understand the chemistry of ice formation. The molecular-level perspective of this process may help in predicting the formation and melting of ice, from individual crystals to glaciers and ice sheets. The latter being crucial to quantify environmental transformation in connection with climate change and global warming.

The team was able to track down the first step in ice formation, called nucleation, which happens in an incredibly short length of time, a fraction of a billionth of a second, when highly mobile individual water molecules find each other and coalesce. However, conventional microscopes are far too slow to follow the motion of water molecules, so it is impossible to use them to monitor how molecules combine on top of solid surfaces.

Anton Tamtögl et al, Motion of water monomers reveals a kinetic barrier to ice nucleation on graphene, Nature Communications (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23226-5

https://phys.org/news/2021-05-team-ice-graphene.html?utm_source=nwl...

Scientists overhear two atoms chatting

How materials behave depends on the interactions between countless atoms. You could see this as a giant group chat in which atoms are continuously exchanging quantum information. Researchers  have now been able to intercept a chat between two atoms. They present their findings in Science on 28 May.

Atoms, of course, don't really talk. But they can react to each other. This is particularly the case for magnetic atoms. "Each atom carries a small magnetic moment called spin. These spins influence each other, like compass needles do when you bring them close together. If you give one of them a push, they will start moving together in a very specific way.

But according to the laws of quantum mechanics, each spin can be simultaneously point in various directions, forming a superposition. This means that actual transfer of quantum information takes place between the atoms, like some sort of conversation.

On a large scale, this kind of exchange of information between atoms can lead to fascinating phenomena. A classic example is superconductivity: the effect where some materials lose all electrical resistivity below a critical temperature. While well understood for the simplest cases, nobody knows exactly how this effect comes about in many complex materials. But it's certain that magnetic quantum interactions play a key role. For the purpose of trying to explaining phenomena like this, scientists are very interested in being able to intercept these exchanges; to overhear the conversations between atoms.

Scientists  literally put two atoms next to each other to see what happens. This is possible by virtue of a scanning tunneling microscope: a device in which a sharp needle can probe atoms one-by-one and can even rearrange them. The researchers used this device to place two titanium atoms at a distance of just over one nanometer—one millionth of a millimeter—apart. At that distance, the atoms are just able to detect each other's spin. If you would now twist one of the two spins, the conversation would start by itself.

Usually, this twist is performed by sending very precise radio signals to the atoms. This so-called spin resonance technique—which is quite reminiscent of the working principle of an MRI scanner found in hospitals—is used successfully in research on quantum bits. You have barely started twisting the one spin before the other starts to rotate along. This way you can never investigate what happens upon placing the two spins in opposite directions

part 2

So the researchers tried something unorthodox: they rapidly inverted the spin of one of the two atoms with a sudden burst of electric current. To their surprise, this drastic approach resulted in a beautiful quantum interaction, exactly by the book. During the pulse, electrons collide with the atom, causing its spin to rotate.

The electron inverts the spin of one atom causing it to point, say, to the left. You could view this as a measurement, erasing all quantum memory. But from the point of view of the combined system comprising both atoms, the resulting situation is not so mundane at all. For the two atoms together, the new state constitutes a perfect superposition, enabling the exchange of information between them. Crucially for this to happen is that both spins become entangled: a peculiar quantum state in which they share more information about each other than classically possible."

The discovery can be of importance to research on quantum bits. Perhaps also in that research you could get away with being slightly less careful when initializing quantum states. 

"Free coherent evolution of a coupled atomic spin system initialized by electron scattering" Science (2021). science.sciencemag.org/cgi/doi … 1126/science.abg8223

https://phys.org/news/2021-05-scientists-atoms-chatting.html?utm_so...

Had COVID? You’ll probably make antibodies for a lifetime

Brain Computer Interface Turns Mental Handwriting into Text on Screen

Researchers have, for the first time, decoded the neural signals associated with writing letters, then displayed typed versions of those letters in real time. They hope their invention could one day help people with paralysis communicate.

Bees Opening a Soda Bottle

'Unbelievable' Video Shows Two Bees Work Together to Unscrew a Soda...

Physicists Have Broken The Speed of Light With Pulses Inside Hot Plasma

Physicists have been playing hard and fast with the speed limit of light pulses for a while, speeding them up and even slowing them to a virtual stand-still using various materials like cold atomic gases, refractive crystals, and optical fibers.

This time, researchers from Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California and the University of Rochester in New York have managed it inside hot swarms of charged particles, fine-tuning the speed of light waves within plasma to anywhere from around one-tenth of light's usual vacuum speed to more than 30 percent faster.

This is both more – and less – impressive than it sounds.

https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.126.205001

https://www.newscientist.com/article/2278564-laser-pulses-travel-fa...

Researchers show how air pollution may contribute to loss of smell

The loss of smell, a condition known as anosmia, can severely impact a person's quality of life, making it extremely difficult to taste foods, detect airborne hazards in the environment and carry out other functions dependent on the sense. Those with anosmia may experience weight concerns, decreased social interaction, depression and general anxiety. In some cases, loss of smell has been linked to death in older adults. Now researchers have studied one of the known causes of anosmia—long-term exposure to air pollution—to better understand how it can rob someone of the ability to smell and taste.

According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), PM2.5 (the PM stands for "particulate matter") is the term for a mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air. Depending on location, PM2.5 can consist of many materials, including dust, dirt, soot, smoke, organic compounds and metals. It has been linked to cardiovascular disease, lung cancer, decline in cognitive thinking ability, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma and premature death. Previous research has associated PM2.5 as a likely culprit in loss of smell.

The researchers found long-term airborne exposure to PM2.5 increases the risk of losing one's smell by nearly twice (a 1.6- to 1.7-fold increase). They think this may occur because the location of the olfactory nerve—which contains the sensory nerve fibers relating to the sense of smell—places it directly in the path of inhaled PM2.5 materials.

Based on this result, the researchers  that long-term exposure to high levels of PM2.5 represents a common risk factor for the loss of sense of smell, especially in vulnerable populations such as older people—but also one that is potentially modifiable if sources of PM2.5 components can be better controlled.

Zhenyu Zhang et al, Exposure to Particulate Matter Air Pollution and Anosmia, JAMA Network Open (2021). DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.11606

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-05-air-pollution-contribute-los...

Hundreds of gibberish papers still lurk in the scientific literature

References

Fight against antibiotic-resistant bacteria has a glowing new weapon

In the perpetual arms races between bacteria and human-made antibiotics, there is a new tool to give human medicine the edge, in part by revealing bacterial weaknesses and potentially by leading to more targeted or new treatments for bacterial infections.

A research team has developed chemical probes to help identify an enzyme, produced by some types of E. coli and pneumococcal bacteria, known to break down several common types of antibiotics, making these bacteria dangerously resistant to treatment.

In response to antibiotic treatment, bacteria have evolved various mechanisms to resist that treatment, and one of those is to make enzymes that basically chew up the antibiotics before they can do their job. The type of tool researchers now developed gives us critical information that could keep us one step ahead of deadly bacteria.

I n a paper published online in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, the researchers zeroed in on the threat posed by the bacterial enzyme called New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase (NDM). They set out to create a molecule that glows when it comes into contact with the NDM enzyme. When these chemical probes are added to a test tube, they bind to the enzyme and glow. Such a tool could be used to alert doctors to what kind of bacterial threat is affecting their patients and tell them which antibiotics to use.

NDM breaks down antibiotics in the penicillin, cephalosporin and carbapenem classes, which are some of the safest and most effective treatments for bacterial infections. Other classes of antibiotics exist, but they may carry more side effects, have more drug interactions and may be less available in some parts of the world.

In addition to indicating the presence of the NDM enzyme, the florescent chemical probe developed  may help find a different way to combat these resistant bacteria. One treatment option that doctors use with resistant bacteria is to combine common antibiotics and an inhibitor. Although there is no known clinically effective inhibitor for NDM-producing bacteria, this probe could help find one.

Once the probe has bound to the enzyme and begun to glow, if an effective inhibitor is introduced, it will knock the probe loose and the glow would stop. This allows scientists to test a high volume of potential drugs very quickly.

1. Radhika Mehta, Dann D. Rivera, David J. Reilley, Dominique Tan, Pei W. Thomas, Abigail Hinojosa, Alesha C. Stewart, Zishuo Cheng, Caitlyn A. Thomas, Michael W. Crowder, Anastassia N. Alexandrova, Walter Fast, Emily L. Que. Visualizing the Dynamic Metalation State of New Delhi Metallo-β-lactamase-1 in Bacteria Using a Reversible Fluorescent Probe. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 2021; DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c00290

Milky Way no freak accident, astronomers say

The first detailed cross-section of a galaxy broadly similar to the Milky Way, published, reveals that our galaxy evolved gradually, instead of being the result of a violent mash-up. The finding throws the origin story of our home into doubt. The galaxy, dubbed UGC 10738, turns out to have distinct ,thick, and thin discs similar to those of the Milky Way. This suggests, contrary to previous theories, that such structures are not the result of a rare long-ago collision with a smaller galaxy. They appear to be the product of more peaceful change. And that is a game-changer. It means that our spiral galaxy home isn't the product of a freak accident. Instead, it is typical. 

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Taking photos can impair your memory of events

 It is a common practice to photograph events that we most want to remember, such as birthdays, graduations and vacations. But taking photos can actually impair your memory of the experience, according to new research from Binghamton University, State University of New York. Binghamton University graduate student Rebecca Lurie and Professor of Psychology Deanne L. Westerman sought to understand if taking a photo of an event or an experience impairs or improves memory. Previous research on this topic has used naturalistic settings, asking participants to photograph their trip to an art museum. The results of these studies were inconsistent, with some studies showing memory impairments and others showing improvements for photographed art. To gain better control of the experience, the researchers conducted five experiments involving a total of 525 University students in a controlled laboratory setting.

The participants saw a set of artwork and were instructed to take a photo of some pieces using a camera on a tablet and to only look at the other pieces. Later, the researchers tested the participants’ memory of all of the artwork.

In all five experiments, photographed art was remembered more poorly than art that was merely viewed. This memory impairment for photographed art was found on tests given after 20 minutes and tests given after two days. The results also showed impaired memory for the visual details of the artwork as well as the overall theme, or gist, of the piece. 

The researchers note an important caveat in that they did not allow participants to review their photos, and so their findings only apply to a situation in which you take a photograph and never look at it again

https://researchnews.cc/news/6988/Taking-photos-can-impair-your-mem...

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Duetting songbirds 'mute' the musical mind of their partner to stay in sync

A new study of duetting songbirds from Ecuador, the plain-tail wren (Pheugopedius euophrys), has offered another tune explaining the mysterious connection between successful performing duos.

It's a link of their minds, and it happens, in fact, as each singer mutes the brain of the other as they coordinate their duets.

In a study published May 31 in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, a team of researchers studying brain activity of singing male and female plain-tailed wrens has discovered that the species synchronizes their frenetically paced duets, surprisingly, by inhibiting the song-making regions of their partner's brain as they exchange phrases.

Researchers say that the auditory feedback exchanged between wrens during their opera-like duets momentarily inhibits motor circuits used for singing in the listening partner, which helps link the pair's brains and coordinate turn-taking for a seemingly telepathic performance. The study also offers fresh insight into how humans and other cooperative animals use sensory cues to act in concert with one another.

Melissa J. Coleman el al., "Neurophysiological coordination of duet singing," PNAS (2021). www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2018188118

https://phys.org/news/2021-05-duetting-songbirds-mute-musical-mind....

New 'Swiss Army knife' cleans up water pollution

Phosphate pollution in rivers, lakes and other waterways has reached dangerous levels, causing algae blooms that starve fish and aquatic plants of oxygen. And farmers worldwide are coming to terms with a dwindling reserve of phosphate fertilizers that feed half the world's food supply.

A team of researchers has developed a way to repeatedly remove and reuse phosphate from polluted waters. The researchers liken the development to a "Swiss Army knife" for pollution remediation as they tailor their membrane to absorb and later release other pollutants.

Phosphorus underpins both the world's food system and all life on earth. Every living organism on the planet requires it: phosphorous is in cell membranes, the scaffolding of DNA and in our skeleton. Though other key elements like oxygen and nitrogen can be found in the atmosphere, phosphorous has no analog. The small fraction of usable phosphorous comes from the Earth's crust, which takes thousands or even millions of years to weather away. And our mines are running out.

Given the shortage of this non-renewable natural resource, it is sadly ironic that many of our lakes are suffering from a process known as eutrophication, which occurs when too many nutrients enter a natural water source. As phosphate and other minerals build up, aquatic vegetation and algae become too dense, depleting oxygen from water and ultimately killing aquatic life.

Ecologists and engineers traditionally have developed tactics to address the mounting environmental and public health concerns around phosphate by eliminating phosphate from water sources. Only recently has the emphasis shifted away from removing to recovering phosphate.

Stephanie M. Ribet el al., "Phosphate Elimination and Recovery Lightweight (PEARL) membrane: A sustainable environmental remediation approach," PNAS (2021). www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.2102583118

https://phys.org/news/2021-05-swiss-army-knife-pollution.html?utm_s...

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Phonon catalysis could lead to a new field

Batteries and fuel cells often rely on a process known as ion diffusion to function. In ion diffusion, ionized atoms move through solid materials, similar to the process of water being absorbed by rice when cooked. Just like cooking rice, ion diffusion is incredibly temperature-dependent and requires high temperatures to happen fast.

This temperature dependence can be limiting, as the materials used in some systems like fuel cells need to withstand high temperatures sometimes in excess of 1,000 degrees Celsius. In a new study, a team of researchers at MIT and the University of Muenster in Germany showed a new effect, where ion diffusion is enhanced while the material remains cold, by only exciting a select number of vibrations known as phonons. This new approach—which the team refers to as "phonon catalysis"—could lead to an entirely new field of research. Their work was published in Cell Reports Physical Science.

In the study, the research team used a computational model to determine which vibrations actually caused ions to move during ion diffusion. Rather than increasing the temperature of the entire material, they increased the temperature of just those specific vibrations in a process they refer to as targeted phonon excitation.

 Kiarash Gordiz et al, Enhancement of ion diffusion by targeted phonon excitation, Cell Reports Physical Science (2021). DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrp.2021.100431

https://phys.org/news/2021-05-phonon-catalysis-field.html?utm_sourc...

Endangered purple Cauliflower Coral pushed closer to brink of extinction

Vaccines charge up natural immunity against SARS-CoV-2

According to new research, people who have had COVID enjoy strong immunity against the coronavirus for at least a year after they were initially infected. In analyzing antibodies present in the blood of COVID patients, Rockefeller scientists were able to track the evolution of these mutable molecules. They found that vaccination boosts the immunity these individuals naturally develop upon infection, so much that they are likely protected even from the emerging variants.

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Why scientists are concerned about leaks at biolabs

The theory that COVID-19 might be the result of scientific experiments has thrown a spotlight on the work of the world's most secure biolabs.

The 3 Essential Rules For Effective Science Communication

https://www.forbes.com/sites/jvchamary/2021/05/31/science-communica...

A revolutionary gene therapy is bringing hope to UK parents - but it comes with a steep price tag

A baby in England has been the first patient on the country’s NHS to receive a potentially life-saving new gene therapy to treat spinal muscular atrophy (SMA).

Five-month-old Arthur Morgan was given a dose of the treatment known as Zolgensma at Evelina London Children's Hospital on May 25.

Arthur was born in December last year and diagnosed with SMA, a rare and debilitating neuromuscular disease that prevents muscle development, just a few weeks ago.

Babies born with SMA experience problems with movement, breathing, and swallowing.

The novel gene therapy treatment, produced by US pharma giant Novartis Gene Therapies, repairs affected genes inside the cells, making it easier to manage and potentially cure the disease.

But the wonder drug comes at a price. Zolgensma is one of the world's most expensive drugs with a price tag per dose of €2.08 million. Fortunately for Arthur and his family, the NHS negotiated a non-disclosed discounted price for the drug, making it more accessible for patients suffering from SMA to receive the treatment.

 the importance of using innovative therapies to treat diseases and disorders, such as in this case.

"It is fantastic news that this revolutionary treatment is now available for babies and children like Arthur on the NHS.

These are hugely transformative therapies. To bring something in that only requires treatment once, that actually requires a lot of systems and processes to change

The agreement between Novartis and the NHS is part of a "series of smart deals" aimed to secure more cutting-edge treatments for the British people, according to the NHS website.

Novartis says that while the cost of the single-dose treatment sounds expensive, it isn’t when you compare the alternative treatment for SMA which can include ongoing hospital admissions, ventilators and round-the-clock care. When you consider lifetime costs - actually gene therapies aren’t expensive.

Is Zolgensma 's a complete cure given the many variables, including when the infant is diagnosed and when the drug is administered, he does believe there is a curative future for gene therapy drugs "if the entire system is in sync".

It is moving into a genomic era which is an era of medicine where we can harness our understanding of genetics and the impact on health in a much great way.

https://www.euronews.com/2021/06/01/gene-therapy-life-saving-drug-b...

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Tweaking gene therapy: Scientists experimentally boost red blood cells to aid sickle cell and other hemoglobin diseases

A series of laboratory studies is underway to improve gene therapy worldwide for sickle cell disease, a complex and sometimes deadly heritable blood disorder that dramatically affects the structure and function of oxygen-ferrying red blood cells.

Sickle cell disease is a devastating disorder that largely affects people of African descent. The genetic condition derives its name from the shape of patients' red blood cells, which have the configuration of a crescent moon or sickle. As one of the heritable hemoglobin diseases, doctors say the condition is related to beta thalassemia, which is largely seen in populations throughout the Mediterranean, parts of the Mideast and Asia. In that disease, red blood cells do not sickle but are substantially smaller than normal, and likewise are impaired as transporters of oxygen.

About a dozen gene therapy clinical trials are being conducted in the U.S., but laboratory research designed to improve the technology remains exceptionally active and robust. The aim of all gene therapy technologies for hemoglobin diseases is to produce healthy disc-shaped red blood cells that efficiently transport oxygen throughout the body. In the case of sickle cell disease, the treatment corrects a constellation of medical problems—hemolytic anemia, pain, and organ damage.

have designed a new gene therapy strategy for sickle cell disease—and other hemoglobin diseases—that boosts levels of fetal hemoglobin by increasing gamma-globin concentrations. Fetal hemoglobin is produced during fetal development and is more efficient at transporting oxygen than its adult counterpart. Producing fetal hemoglobin is a capability that can be revived through gene therapy. Boosting levels of fetal hemoglobin not only increases oxygen transport but dramatically lowers the frequency of disease complications.

Just as levels of fetal hemoglobin are boosted in a reimagined and improved form of gene therapy, Uchida and a team of scientists at the Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute have devised a method to also boost gamma-globin in a single gene therapy treatment. Gamma-globin is a component of the hemoglobin molecule, the iron-containing oxygen-transport metalloprotein in red blood cells. Gamma-globin is a member of the globin superfamily of proteins involved in binding and transporting oxygen.

Naoya Uchida et al. Sustained fetal hemoglobin induction in vivo is achieved by BCL11A interference and coexpressed truncated erythropoietin receptor, Science Translational Medicine (2021) DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abb0411

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-05-tweaking-gene-therapy-scient...

Light-shrinking material lets ordinary microscope see in super resolution

Electrical engineers developed a technology that improves the resolution of an ordinary light microscope so that it can be used to directly observe finer structures and details in living cells.

The technology turns a conventional light microscope into what's called a super-resolution microscope. It involves a specially engineered material that shortens the wavelength of light as it illuminates the sample—this shrunken light is what essentially enables the microscope to image in higher resolution.

This material converts low resolution light to high resolution light. It's very simple and easy to use. Just place a sample on the material, then put the whole thing under a normal microscope—no fancy modification needed.

Yeon Ui Lee et al, Metamaterial assisted illumination nanoscopy via random super-resolution speckles, Nature Communications (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-21835-8

https://phys.org/news/2021-06-light-shrinking-material-ordinary-mic...

Falcons have natural 'eye makeup' to improve hunting ability

Dark 'eyeliner' feathers of peregrine falcons act as sun shields to improve the birds' hunting ability, a new scientific study suggests. Scientists have long speculated that falcons' eye markings improve their ability to target fast-moving prey, like pigeons and doves, in bright sunlight. Now research suggests these markings have evolved according to the climate; the sunnier the bird's habitat, the larger and darker are the tell-tale dark 'sun-shade' feathers.

Michelle Vrettos, Chevonne Reynolds, Arjun Amar. Malar stripe size and prominence in peregrine falcons vary positively with solar radiation: support for the solar glare hypothesis. Biology Letters, 2021; 17 (6): 20210116 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2021.0116

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/06/210601194155.htm

World's lakes losing oxygen rapidly as planet warms

Oxygen levels in the world's temperate freshwater lakes are declining rapidly—faster than in the oceans—a trend driven largely by climate change that threatens freshwater biodiversity and drinking water quality.

Research published recently in Nature found that oxygen levels in surveyed lakes across the temperate zone have declined 5.5% at the surface and 18.6% in deep waters since 1980. Meanwhile, in a large subset of mostly nutrient-polluted lakes, surface oxygen levels increased as water temperatures crossed a threshold favoring cyanobacteria, which can create toxins when they flourish in the form of harmful algal blooms.

All complex life depends on oxygen. It's the support system for aquatic food webs. And when you start losing oxygen, you have the potential to lose species. Lakes are losing oxygen 2.75-9.3 times faster than the oceans, a decline that will have impacts throughout the ecosystem.  

Widespread deoxygenation of temperate lakes, Nature (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03550-y , www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03550-y

https://phys.org/news/2021-06-world-lakes-oxygen-rapidly-planet.htm...

Blood clot-busting nanocapsules could reduce existing treatment's side effects

"Fibrinogen-mimicking, multiarm nanovesicles for human thrombus-specific delivery of tissue plasminogen activator and targeted thrombolytic therapy" Science Advances (2021). advances.sciencemag.org/lookup … 1126/sciadv.eabf9033

https://phys.org/news/2021-06-blood-clot-busting-nanocapsules-treat...

Human brain and testis found to have the highest number of common proteins

A team of researchers  has found that for humans, the brain and testis have the highest number of common proteins. In their paper published in the journal Royal Society Open Biology, the group describes their study of protein similarities between tissues.

In this new effort, the researchers noted that evidence from other studies has found some signs of similarities between testis and the human brain. Intrigued, they initiated a study that involved analyzing the proteins produced by different parts of the body and then comparing them to see similarities. The researchers found the greatest similarities between the brain and testicles—13,442 of them. This finding suggests that the brain and the testicles share the highest number of genes of any organs in the body.

The team next focused on the shared proteins and found that most of them were involved in the development of tissue and communications. They suggest this finding was not surprising, considering that proteins from both organs consume high amounts of fuel—one to process thinking, the other to produce millions of sperm every day. They also note that testis and nerve cells are both involved in moving material created inside of them to an outside environment—sperm cells move fertilization factors and neurons move neurotransmitters. Both are part of processes known as exocytosis. Additionally, as part of exocytosis, sperm allow parts of themselves to fuse with an egg. With neurons, exocytosis involves creating neurites that allow for communication between cells.

Bárbara Matos et al, Brain and testis: more alike than previously thought?, Open Biology (2021). DOI: 10.1098/rsob.200322

https://phys.org/news/2021-06-human-brain-testis-highest-common.htm...

Atmospheric metal layers appear with surprising regularity

Twice a day, at dusk and just before dawn, a faint layer of sodium and other metals begins sinking down through the atmosphere, about 90 miles high above the city of Boulder, Colorado. The movement was captured by one of the world's most sensitive "lidar" instruments and reported recently in the AGU journal Geophysical Research Letters.

The metals in those layers come originally from rocky material blasting into Earth's atmosphere from space, and the regularly appearing layers promise to help researchers understand better how earth's atmosphere interacts with space, even potentially how those interactions help support life.

This is an important discovery because we have never seen these dusk/dawn features before, and because these metal layers affect many things. The metals can fall into the ocean and act as fertilizer for ecosystems, the ionized metals can affect GPS radio signals.

It is the first time that the metal layers—which are not harmful to people—have been seen so regularly at these extreme heights in the atmosphere. Such high-altitude metal layers were discovered by Chu's group just 10 years ago above McMurdo, Antarctica, but there they occur more sporadically. Above Boulder, they're consistent, daily, and synched with winds that occur high in the atmosphere.

Xinzhao Chu et al, Mid‐Latitude Thermosphere‐Ionosphere Na (TINa) Layers Observed With High‐Sensitivity Na Doppler Lidar Over Boulder (40.13°N, 105.24°W), Geophysical Research Letters (2021). DOI: 10.1029/2021GL093729

https://phys.org/news/2021-06-atmospheric-metal-layers-regularity.h...

What if the black hole at the center of the Milky Way is actually a...

A team of researchers at the International Center for Relativistic Astrophysics has found evidence that suggests Sagittarius A* is not a massive black hole but is instead a mass of dark matter. In their paper published in the journal Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters, the group describes the evidence they found and how it has stood up to testing.

Deadly river ‘earthquakes’ could be manageable

Scientists make powerful underwater glue inspired by barnacles and mussels

A new type of glue inspired by the stubbornly adherent crustaceans has been developed by researchers.

Starting with the fibrous silk protein harvested from silkworms, they were able to replicate key features of barnacle and mussel glue, including protein filaments, chemical crosslinking and iron bonding. The result is a powerful non-toxic glue that sets and works as well underwater as it does in dry conditions and is stronger than most synthetic glue products now on the market.

The Silklab "glue crew" focused on several key elements to replicate in aquatic adhesives. Mussels secrete long sticky filaments called byssus. These secretions form polymers, which embed into surfaces, and chemically cross-link to strengthen the bond. The protein polymers are made up of long chains of amino acids including one, dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA), a catechol-bearing amino acid that can cross-link with the other chains. The mussels add another special ingredient—iron complexes—that reinforce the cohesive strength of the byssus.

Barnacles secrete a strong cement made of proteins that form into polymers which anchor onto surfaces. The proteins in barnacle cement polymers fold their amino acid chains into beta sheets—a zig-zag arrangement that presents flat surfaces and plenty of opportunities to form strong hydrogen bonds to the next protein in the polymer, or to the surface to which the polymer filament is attaching.

Michael A. North et al. High Strength Underwater Bonding with Polymer Mimics of Mussel Adhesive Proteins, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces (2017). DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b00270

https://phys.org/news/2021-06-scientists-powerful-underwater-barnac...

https://phys.org/news/2017-03-biomimetic-high-strength-bonding.html

Biomimetic Underwater Glue

Luring bacteria into a trap

Developing vaccines against bacteria is in many cases much more difficult than vaccines against viruses. Like virtually all pathogens, bacteria are able to sidestep a vaccine's effectiveness by modifying their genes. For many pathogens, such genetic adaptations under selective pressure from vaccination will cause their virulence or fitness to decrease. This lets the pathogens escape the effects of vaccination, but at the price of becoming less transmissible or causing less damage. Some pathogens, however, including many bacteria, are extremely good at changing in ways that allow them to escape the effects of vaccination while remaining highly infectious. For scientists looking to develop vaccines, this kind of immune evasion has been a fundamental problem for decades. If they set out to develop vaccines against bacterial pathogens, often they will notice that these quickly become ineffective. Now, however, researchers have exploited precisely this mechanism to come up with an effective vaccine against bacteria. They succeeded in developing a Salmonella vaccine that, instead of trying to outright kill intestinal bacteria, rather guides their evolution in the gut to make them a weaker pathogen.

the researchers inoculated mice with a series of slightly different vaccines against Salmonella typhimurium, and observed how the Salmonella in the animals’ guts modified their genes to escape the vaccines’ effects. This let the scientists identify the full spectrum of possible immune evasion mutations in Salmonella typhimurium. Subsequently, the researchers produced a combination vaccine from four Salmonella strains that covered the bacteria’s full spectrum of genetic evasion options.

A surprising immune evasion was driven by this combined vaccine, causing an important Salmonella sugar coating on the surface to atrophy. While the affected bacteria were still able to multiply in the animals’ guts, they were largely unable to infect body tissues and cause disease. This is because the sugar coating is part of the bacteria’s protective coating that shields them from the host’s defences as well as from viruses that often infect and kill the bacteria. In tests on mice, the scientists were able to show that their new vaccine was more effective at preventing Salmonella infections than existing vaccines approved for use in pigs and chickens.

The scientists now plan to use the same principle to develop vaccines against other microorganisms – for example, against antimicrobial-​resistant bacterial strains. In addition, it ought to be possible to use the approach in biotechnology and bring about specific modifications in microorganisms by exerting selective pressure through vaccines.

https://ethz.ch/en/news-and-events/eth-news/news/2021/06/luring-bac...

Diard M, Bakkeren E, Lentsch V, Rocker A, Amare Bekele N, Hoces D, Aslani S, Arnoldini M, Böhi F, Schumann-​Moor K, Adamcik J, Piccoli L, Lanzavecchia A, Stadtmueller BM, Donohue N, van der Woude MW, Hockenberry A, Viollier PH, Falquet L, Wüthrich D, Bonfiglio F, Loverdo C, Egli A, Zandomeneghi G, Mezzenga R, Holst O, Meier BH, Hardt WD, Slack E: A rationally designed oral vaccine induces immunoglobulin A in the murine gut that directs the evolution of attenuated Salmonella variants. Nature Microbiology, 27 May 2021, doi: 10.1038/s41564-​021-00911-1

Evolutionary Trap Vaccines to combat drug resistant bacteria

The Spark Award 2020 of ETH Zurich stands for the most promising invention, which was filed for a patent in 2019. The presented technology is among the top 5 nominees.

COVID Sweat Sensor Catches Your Immune System Before It Goes Berserk 

Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, doctors recognized that patients who developed a surge of pro-inflammatory immune proteins, also known as a “cytokine storm,” were often the sickest and at the greatest risk of dying. While blood tests can measure cytokines, they can’t continuously monitor a patient’s protein levels. Researchers at EnliSense LLC and the University of Texas have developed a wristwatch-like device that can track cytokine levels through a patient’s sweat, allowing doctors time to proactively administer medicines like steroids if they see cytokine levels rising.

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Deep-Earth microbes feed on radioactivity

Scientists have long puzzled over how microbes living deep underground feed themselves without sunlight or heat. Now, two studies suggest that these organisms could feed off the radioactive decay of hydrogen and other elements. The findings open up new possibilities for life on other worlds — and could shed some light on our planet’s own history.

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Radioactivity May Fuel Life Deep Underground and Inside Other Worlds

New form of silicon could enable next-gen electronic and energy devices

A research team developed a new method for synthesizing a novel crystalline form of silicon with a hexagonal structure that could potentially be used to create next-generation electronic and energy devices with enhanced properties that exceed those of the "normal" cubic form of silicon used today.

Like all elements, silicon can take different crystalline forms, called allotropes, in the same way that soft graphite and super-hard diamond are both forms of carbon. The form of silicon most commonly used in electronic devices, including computers and solar panels, has the same structure as diamond. Despite its ubiquity, this form of silicon is not actually fully optimized for next-generation applications, including high-performance transistors and some photovoltaic devices.

While many different silicon allotropes with enhanced physical properties are theoretically possible, only a handful exist in practice given the lack of known synthetic pathways that are currently accessible.

Thomas B. Shiell et al, Bulk Crystalline 4H-Silicon through a Metastable Allotropic Transition, Physical Review Letters (2021). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.126.215701

https://phys.org/news/2021-06-silicon-enable-next-gen-electronic-en...

Rapid, blood test could confirm COVID-19 vaccination in minutes

One challenge as society reopens is identifying who has been vaccinated for SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. A team of  researchers has developed a rapid blood test that could confirm a person has been vaccinated while they wait to board a plane or enter a sporting event.

Their COVID-19 antibody test is similar to one used at home to determine blood type, where the user pricks a finger and places a drop of blood on a card. A fusion protein developed by the research team is housed on the card and detects COVID-19 antibodies, tiny proteins in the blood the immune system produces to "remember" viral encounters and provide immunity to future infections. Results come back in less than five minutes, faster than current lateral flow tests to detect antibodies at point of care, while also potentially providing a clearer result.

It could be used to confirm a person's vaccination instead of having to show a vaccine card.

Robert L. Kruse et al, A hemagglutination-based, semi-quantitative test for point-of-care determination of SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels, medRxiv (2021). DOI: 10.1101/2021.05.01.21256452

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-06-rapid-at-home-blood-covid-va...

Rapid, Point-of-Care, SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Test based on Hemagglutination

How to retard time for cells

Scientists at Leipzig University, in collaboration with colleagues from Germany and England, have succeeded in reversibly slowing down cellular processes. A team of biophysicists led by Professor Josef Alfons Käs and Dr Jörg Schnauß were able to show in experiments that cells can be transferred into slow motion without changing the temperature.

How to retard time for cells

Scientists have succeeded in reversibly slowing down cellular processes. A team of biophysicists were able to show in experiments that cells can be transferred into slow motion without changing the temperature.

 Cells are not only our biological building blocks, but also highly dynamic, active systems. The research group  has succeeded in significantly reducing these dynamics with heavy water, without damaging the cells. For cells, time—or, more specifically, their dynamics—can be significantly slowed down in the presence of heavy water.

The research showed on various biological levels that the movement of cells and their dynamics was only taking place in slow motion.

The researchers confirmed this effect with a variety of complementary methods and attributed the observations to an increased interaction between the structural proteins. "Heavy water also forms hydrogen bonds, but these are stronger than in normal aqueous environments. As a result, structural proteins such as actin seem to interact more strongly with one another and briefly stick together. What is spectacular here is that the effects are reversible, with cells showing their native properties again as soon as they are transferred into a normal aqueous medium.

These changes show the fingerprint of a passive material. However, cells are highly active and far from thermodynamic equilibrium. If they behave like a passive material, they are usually dead. However, as the researchers were able to show, this was not the case in their experiments. They now hope to be able to use the knowledge gained to keep cells or even tissue vital for longer. If this approach is confirmed, heavy water could be used for longer storage times, for example during organ transplants.

Jörg Schnauß et al, Cells in Slow Motion: Apparent Undercooling Increases Glassy Behavior at Physiological Temperatures, Advanced Materials (2021). DOI: 10.1002/adma.202101840

https://phys.org/news/2021-06-retard-cells.html?utm_source=nwletter...

Mockingbird song decoded

The North American mockingbird is famous for its ability to imitate the song of other birds. But it doesn't just mimic its kindred species, it actually composes its own songs based on other birds' melodies. An interdisciplinary research team has now worked out how exactly the mockingbird constructs its imitations. The scientists determined that the birds follow similar musical rules as those found in human music, from Beethoven to Kendrick Lamar.

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The human genome: filling in the blanks

Scientists are a step closer to completely sequencing the entire human genome. An international collaboration of researchers has worked out how some stretches of DNA containing many repeating letters (or base pairs) fit together, and discovered about 115 genes that code for proteins in the process. The newly sequenced genome adds nearly 200 million base pairs to the most recent human genome sequence, which researchers have used as a reference since 2013.

A complete human genome sequence is close: how scientists filled in the gaps

New study may help explain low oxygen levels in COVID-19 patients

 A new study published in the journal Stem Cell Reports by University of Alberta researchers is shedding light on why many COVID-19 patients, even those not in hospital, are suffering from hypoxia—a potentially dangerous condition in which there is decreased oxygenation in the body’s tissues. The study also shows why the anti-inflammatory drug dexamethasone has been an effective treatment for those with the virus.

Low blood-oxygen levels have been a significant problem in COVID-19 patients.

One potential mechanism might be that COVID-19 impacts red blood cell production.

In the study, the research team examined the blood of 128 patients with COVID-19. The patients included those who were critically ill and admitted to the ICU, those who had moderate symptoms and were admitted to hospital, and those who had a mild version of the disease and only spent a few hours in hospital. The researchers found that, as the disease became more severe, more immature red blood cells flooded into blood circulation, sometimes making up as much as 60 per cent of the total cells in the blood. By comparison, immature red blood cells make up less than one per cent, or none at all, in a healthy individual’s blood.

Immature red blood cells reside in the bone marrow and we do not normally see them in blood circulation. This indicates that the virus is impacting the source of these cells. As a result, and to compensate for the depletion of healthy immature red blood cells, the body is producing significantly more of them in order to provide enough oxygen for the body.

The problem is that immature red blood cells do not transport oxygen—only mature red blood cells do. The second issue is that immature red blood cells are highly susceptible to COVID-19 infection. As immature red blood cells are attacked and destroyed by the virus, the body is unable to replace mature red blood cells—which only live for about 120 days—and the ability to transport oxygen in the bloodstream is diminished.

The question was how the virus infects the immature red blood cells. It was found that immature red blood cells expressed the receptor ACE2 and a co-receptor, TMPRSS2, which allowed SARS-CoV-2 to infect them.

These findings are exciting but also show two significant consequences: First, immature red blood cells are the cells being infected by the virus, and when the virus kills them, it forces the body to try to meet the oxygen supply requirements by pumping more immature red blood cells out of the bone marrow. But that just creates more targets for the virus.

Second, immature red blood cells are actually potent immunosuppressive cells; they suppress antibody production and they suppress T-cell immunity against the virus, making the entire situation worse. So more immature red blood cells means a weaker immune response against the virus.

When the team began exploring why dexamethasone had such an effect, they found two potential mechanisms. First, dexamethasone suppresses the response of the ACE2 and TMPRSS2 receptors to SARS-CoV-2 in immature red blood cells, reducing the opportunities for infection. Second, dexamethasone increases the rate at which the immature red blood cells mature, helping the cells shed their nuclei faster. Without the nuclei, the virus has nowhere to replicate.

https://researchnews.cc/news/7075/New-study-may-help-explain-low-ox...

Part 2:

Shima Shahbaz, Lai Xu, Mohammed Osman, Wendy Sligl, Justin Shields, Michael Joyce, D. Lorne Tyrrell, Olaide Oyegbami, Shokrollah Elahi. Erythroid precursors and progenitors suppress adaptive immunity and get invaded by SARS-CoV-2. Stem Cell Reports, 2021; 16 (5): 1165 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2021.04.001

Part 1

Doctors have been blamed for the rise in black fungus in India, but the COVID treatment guidelines could be contributing

The emergence of black, white and yellow fungal infections are causing concern in India (1,2).

People use use black, white and yellow fungus to refer to mucormycosis, aspergillosis, candidiasis and cryptococcosis. Together, they are referred to as invasive fungal infections, and they usually infect people with an impaired immune system, or with damaged tissue. These are said to have been caused by misuse of steroids and antibiotics (which impair our ability to fight these fungal infections) in COVID treatments, and high numbers of patients with poorly controlled diabetes where tissue is damaged (3).

Could the situation have been averted? Perhaps, if the government had considered recent evidence and issued clear guidelines on using steroids and antiobiotics in treating COVID-19.

Part 2:

The two most recent versions of COVID treatment guidelines in India (June 27, 2020 and May 24, 2021) rightly state antibiotics should not be prescribed routinely.

Instead, they urge doctors to consider “empiric” antibiotic therapy as per a “local antibiogram” when COVID patients have moderate secondary infections. Empiric antibiotic therapy implies making a diagnosis based on what the literature says is the most likely pathogen (or bug) causing the infection. Antibiograms are sent out to hospitals periodically and they describe the current infections circulating in the area and which antiobiotics work against them.

For severe secondary infections, the guidelines suggest conducting blood cultures to check which antibiotic might work, ideally before the medication is started.

An empirical approach can work effectively only if a majority of COVID facilities treating moderate cases have access to local antibiograms. If they don’t, doctors will usually end up prescribing broad-spectrum antibiotics. Broad-spectrum antiobiotics kill a range of bugs, rather than a specific one, which is risky because they can also kill the good bugs we use to fight off things like fungal infections

Part 3: 

A study of ten Indian hospitals found 74% of patients with secondary infections during the first wave were given antibiotics the WHO has said should be used sparingly, and another 9% received antibiotics that were not recommended.

The guidelines should advise the same procedure for moderate and severe cases, that is, to conduct blood cultures before starting patients on antimicrobial therapy to ensure the antibiotics will work, and that they won’t lead to a secondary fungal infection.

One of the recommended COVID treatments of the National Institute of Health in the US is 32mg a day of the steroid methylprednisolone.

In March 2020, Indian guidelines for treatment recommended 1-2mg methyprednisolone per kilo of body weight for patients with severe symptoms (so 70-140mg for a 70kg person).

This was updated in June 2020 with a lower dose of methylprednisolone (35–70mg per day for a 70kg person) for three days for moderate cases and the original recommended dose (70–140mg per day for a 70kg person) for five to seven days for severe cases.

The most recent guideline of April 2021 does not alter the dosage per day but recommended an increased duration of therapy, five to ten days, for both moderate and severe cases.