Biological fingerprints in soil show where diamond-containing ore is buried

Researchers have identified buried kimberlite, the rocky home of diamonds, by testing the DNA of microbes in the surface soil.

These "biological fingerprints" can reveal which minerals are buried tens of meters below Earth's surface without having to drill. The researchers believe it is the first use of modern DNA sequencing of microbial communities in the search for buried minerals.

The research published in Communications Earth and Environment represents a new tool for mineral exploration, where a full toolbox could save prospectors time and a lot of money.

When ore interacts with soil, it changes the communities of microbes in the soil. The researchers tested this in the lab, introducing kimberlite to soil microbes and watching how they changed in number and species.

Using these "indicator" microbes and their DNA sequences, the team tested the surface soil at an exploration site in the Northwest Territories where kimberlite had previously been confirmed through drilling. They found 59 of the 65 indicators were present in the soil, with 19 present in high numbers directly above the buried ore. They also identified new indicator microbes to add to their set.

Using this set, they tested the surface soil at a second site in the Northwest Territories where they suspected kimberlite was present, and precisely located the topological outline and location of kimberlite buried tens of meters beneath the Earth's surface. This showed that indicators from one site could predict the location at another site. In future, exploration teams could build up a database of indicator species and test an unknown site to find out if kimberlite deposits are buried beneath the soil.

The researchers evaluated their technique against another technique known as geochemical analysis, which involves testing elements in the soil to identify the minerals beneath. The microbes were more precise when it came to identifying the location of buried ore.

Rachel L. Simister et al, DNA sequencing, microbial indicators, and the discovery of buried kimberlites, Communications Earth & Environment (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s43247-023-01020-z

Mimics human tissue, fights bacteria: new biomaterial

Scientists have created a new material that could change the way human tissue can be grown in the lab and used in medical procedures.

The new material belongs to a family of substances called hydrogels, the essence of life’s ‘squishy’ substances found in all living things, such as cartilage in animals and in plants like seaweed. The properties of hydrogels make them very useful in biomedical research because they can mimic human tissue, allowing cells to grow in a laboratory.

There are also human-made hydrogels that are used in a broad range of commodity products ranging from food and cosmetics to contact lenses and absorbent materials, and more recently in medical research to seal wounds and replace damaged tissue. While they might function adequately as space fillers that encourage tissue growth, synthetic hydrogels fall short in recreating the complex properties of real human tissue.

But in a research paper published today in Nature Communications, scientists describe how a new lab-made hydrogel behaves like natural tissue, with a number of surprising qualities that have implications for medical, food and manufacturing technology.

The hydrogel material is made from very simple, short peptides, which are the building blocks of proteins. The material is bioactive, which means that encapsulated cells behave as if they are living in natural tissue. At the same time, the material is antimicrobial, meaning that it will prevent bacterial infections. This combination lands it in the sweet spot for materials that might be useful in medicine. The material is also self-healing, which means that it will reform after being squished, fractured, or after being expelled from a syringe. This makes it ideal for 3D bioprinting, or as an injectable material for medicine.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-41907-1

Inside CERN’s ‘antimatter factory’ creating antihydrogen

Microgravity Can Permanently Mutate Bacteria And Make Them Faster Breeders

Certain types of bacteria can mutate to reproduce more quickly when exposed to microgravity, and that's not great news for our space tourist dreams, seeing as we humans are teeming with bacteria. It's not clear why these bacteria respond so positively to microgravity, but researchers are figuring out ways to protect astronauts out in space, as well as mitigating the damage should a space-modified colony ever find its way back to Earth. In a study published in 2017, researchers from the University of Houston monitored Escherichia coli cells through 1,000 generations of growth in simulated microgravity conditions, finding that it spread significantly faster than a control sample of unaltered bacteria. The E. coli cells also picked up at least 16 different genetic mutations along the way, though it's not clear how these mutations affect growth rates, either individually or as a group. The adapted cells grew about three times as many colonies as the unmodified E. coli, the tests showed. Even when the supercharged bacteria were removed from microgravity conditions up to 30 generations before testing, 72 percent of the growth advantage was retained, showing that some changes prompted by space travel could be permanent. Certain strains have previously been shown to grow 60 percent more quickly in microgravity, so there seems to be something about that weightless environment that these microorganisms really like. Even now, astronauts on board the ISS are having to deal with thick biofilms of bacteria on their equipment that are growing faster than normal.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41526-017-0020-1

Scientists Unveil World-First Experimental Cocaine Addiction Vaccine

Scientists  have announced the development of an innovative new treatment for addiction to the drug and its powerful derivative crack: a vaccine.

Dubbed "Calixcoca," the test vaccine, which has shown promising results in trials on animals, triggers an immune response that blocks cocaine and crack from reaching the brain, which researchers hope will help users break the cycle of addiction.

Put simply, addicts would no longer get high from the drug.

​If the treatment gets regulatory approval, it would be the first time cocaine addiction is treated using a vaccine.

​The vaccine works by triggering patients' immune systems to produce antibodies that bind to cocaine molecules in the bloodstream, making them too large to pass into the brain's mesolimbic system, or "reward center," where the drug normally stimulates high levels of pleasure-inducing dopamine.

​It also protected rat fetuses against cocaine, researchers found, suggesting it could be used in humans to protect the unborn babies of pregnant addicts.

Scientists Caught Sperm Defying One of The Major Laws of Physics

With their whip-like tails, human sperm propel themselves through viscous fluids, seemingly in defiance of Newton's third law of motion, according to a new study that characterizes the motion of these sex cells and single-celled algae.

Scientists investigated these non-reciprocal interactions in sperm and other microscopic biological swimmers, to figure out how they slither through substances that should, in theory, resist their movement.

When Newton conceived his now-famed laws of motion in 1686, he sought to explain the relationship between a physical object and the forces acting upon it with a few neat principles that, it turns out, don't necessarily apply to microscopic cells wriggling through sticky fluids.

Newton's third law can be summed up as "for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction". It signifies a particular symmetry in nature where opposing forces act against each other. In the simplest example, two equal-sized marbles colliding as they roll along the ground will transfer their force and rebound based on this law.

However, nature is chaotic, and not all physical systems are bound by these symmetries. So-called non-reciprocal interactions show up in unruly systems made up of flocking birds, particles in fluid – and swimming sperm.

These motile agents move in ways that display asymmetric interactions with the animals behind them or the fluids that surround them, forming a loophole for equal and opposite forces to skirt Newton's third law.
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Part 1

However, nature is chaotic, and not all physical systems are bound by these symmetries. So-called non-reciprocal interactions show up in unruly systems made up of flocking birds, particles in fluid – and swimming sperm.

These motile agents move in ways that display asymmetric interactions with the animals behind them or the fluids that surround them, forming a loophole for equal and opposite forces to skirt Newton's third law.
Because birds and cells generate their own energy, which gets added to the system with each flap of their wings or whip of their tails, the system is thrust far from equilibrium, and the same rules don't apply.
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Scientists analyzed experimental data on human sperm and also modeled the motion of green algae, Chlamydomonas. Both swim using thin, bendy flagella that protrude from the cell body and change shape, or deform, to drive the cells forward.

Highly viscous fluids would typically dissipate a flagellum's energy, preventing a sperm or single-celled algae from moving much at all. And yet somehow, the elastic flagella can propel these cells along without provoking a response from their surroundings.

The researchers found that sperm tails and algal flagella have an 'odd elasticity', which allows these flexible appendages to whip about without losing much energy to the surrounding fluid.
But this property of odd elasticity didn't fully explain the propulsion from the flagella's wave-like motion. So from their modeling studies, the researchers also derived a new term, an odd elastic modulus, to describe the internal mechanics of flagella.
The findings could help in the design of small, self-assembling robots that mimic living materials, while the modeling methods could be used to better understand the underlying principles of collective behaviour.

https://journals.aps.org/prxlife/abstract/10.1103/PRXLife.1.023002

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We can't defeat cancer without acknowledging the differences between men and women, say scientists
For generations, the medical community has used the "standard human"—a 70-kilogram male—to guide education, research and practice. This means that for many conditions, although the recommended type, dosage and duration of treatment may be effective for the group of males who happen to weigh close to 70 kg, they might be far from optimal for most of the population, including all females.

In cancer, multiple bodily factors contribute to how the disease develops, progresses and responds to treatment, and many of these factors relate to sex.

Sex differences in cancer are not technically a new insight, but they have historically been somewhat overlooked. However, researchers have recently started to uncover some of the mechanisms behind how a person's sex affects their experience of cancer. The realization that such knowledge may one day make it possible to improve outcomes for all patients has given more scientists the impulse to delve deeper into this area of research.
The anatomical differences between males and females are well known. Males typically have higher muscle and bone mass, a lower fat mass and a visibly different skeletal shape. Males also have a higher body water content, which, alongside differences in metabolism and fat mass, can affect how the body responds to and breaks down cancer-killing drugs.

Some of these differences are due to males having one Y chromosome and one X chromosome, rather than the two X chromosomes in the female body. In fact, research suggests that genetics plays a very significant part, indicating that up to one third of the genome might be expressed differently by males and females.

Females and males also have different sex hormones, and these influence the blood vessels, immune cells, signaling molecules and other features that surround tumors, known as the tumor microenvironment. For types of cancer that are dependent on or sensitive to hormones, these chemicals can promote the growth and spread of the disease.

Researchers have also uncovered differences between male and female immune responses. They believe that these are typically stronger in females, who tend to clear disease-causing organisms such as bacteria more quickly from the body and be better protected by vaccinations. Conversely, females are often more susceptible to inflammatory and autoimmune conditions, some of which are associated with an increased risk of cancer.

All of these differences mean that, although males are more likely than females to get cancer and to have a poor outcome, females are 34 percent more likely to experience side effects from cancer treatments, including chemotherapy, targeted therapy and immunotherapy.
A big part of the problem is that treatment recommendations are based on the findings of clinical trials, which are only generalizable if the trial participants are representative of the relevant patient population. This is an issue because females are generally under-represented in clinical trials.
Part 1

For instance, between 2003 and 2016, females represented less than 10% of participants in lung and pancreatic cancer trials, despite accounting for more than 40% of the diagnoses. In 2018, women made up only 38% of the 5,157 people who participated in oncology trials that led to the approval of new drugs.

,The insufficient recruitment of female participants has historically been due to concerns that regular monthly hormonal fluctuations might affect the findings and that the intervention being tested could lead to fetal abnormalities in those capable of pregnancy.

Some gender-related misconceptions have also played a part. Research suggests some trial sponsors and clinicians believe that women bring complexity to clinical trials and that their 'increased emotions and sensitivity' may affect how they report their symptoms. However, these excuses are no longer considered valid.

For things to improve, it is crucial for scientists to develop a deeper understanding of the specific influences of sex differences in different cancer types.

 Why outcomes are worse in females. Is it just due to diagnosis occurring at a later stage, when treatment is less likely to be effective, or are there other factors at play?

Scientists should focus on immunology, as male and female hormones have quite different immunological effects.

Sex-specific immunological changes are important to investigate because they dictate how the genomics of tumors evolve and how cancer learns to escape the immune response.

Paul Toren et al, The sex gap in bladder cancer survival—a missing link in bladder cancer care?, Nature Reviews Urology (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s41585-023-00806-2

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Nanoparticles found to be effective for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

A team of scientists has developed a new solution for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

RA is a chronic disease that, unfortunately, has no cure. The disease triggers a mix of troublesome symptoms like inflamed joints, harmful cytokines, and immune system imbalances, which work together to create a relentless cycle of worsening symptoms. While targeting some of these factors can provide short-term relief, others remain unresolved, leading to a frustrating cycle of remission and flare-ups.

One of the major hurdles in RA treatment is the inability to restore the immune system to its healthy state. This leaves the body unable to control the continuous production of harmful substances like reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammatory cytokines, leading to persistent inflammation and discomfort. In essence, the ideal treatment for RA should not only provide immediate relief from inflammation and symptoms but also address the root cause by restoring the immune system to its normal, balanced state.

The new work involves immobilizing ceria nanoparticles (Ce NPs) onto mesenchymal stem cell-derived nanovesicles (MSCNVs). Both of these components can hinder different pathogenic factors, allowing them to work both individually and cooperatively to achieve a comprehensive treatment.

Ce NPs can scavenge the overproduced ROS in RA-inflicted knee joints. They also induce polarization of M1 macrophages into M2, achieving immediate relief of inflammation and symptoms. MSCNVs deliver immunomodulatory cytokines, which turn dendritic cells (DC) into tolerogenic dendritic cells (tDCs). This consequently generates regulatory T cells for long-term immune tolerance. In short, this approach aims to bridge both innate and adaptive immunity to achieve both short-term pain relief, as well as convert the tissue environment into an immune-tolerant state to prevent the recurrence of symptoms.

Researchers confirmed the efficacy of this approach using a collagen-induced arthritis mouse model. The Ce-MSCNV system was able to comprehensively treat and prevent RA by simultaneously relieving the immediate and restoring T cell immunity. Supporting data suggest that improvement in conditions can be achieved after only a single-dose treatment.

The mice treated with the Ce-MSCNV combination fared far better compared to the ones only treated using the Ce NP or MSCNV group. This clearly demonstrates the synergy between anti-inflammation and immunomodulation and underlines the importance of the combined therapy for effective RA treatment. In addition, Ce-MSCNV administration prior to booster injection markedly reduced the incidence and severity of symptoms, supporting the prophylactic potential of these nanoparticles.

Koo Sagang et al, Ceria-vesicle nanohybrid therapeutic for modulation of innate and adaptive immunity in a collagen-induced arthritis model, Nature Nanotechnology (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s41565-023-01523-y

Psoriasis not caused by spontaneous mutations : Study

Psoriasis—a chronic skin condition—is not caused or spread by spontaneous genetic mutations in the skin, new research suggests.

Researchers sequenced skin samples from 111 people with psoriasis. They didn't find any mutated genes in the psoriatic patches that weren't also mutated in the individual's unaffected skin tissue. The study, published in Nature Genetics, suggests that unlike other inflammatory diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease or chronic liver disease, somatic mutations were not responsible for the start or spread of psoriasis.  

Confirming that psoriasis is not caused by any somatic mutations enables researchers to continue to explore other avenues.

Over time, all cells in our bodies will accumulate mutations, known as somatic mutations. These can arise from replication errors, chemicals, or environmental factors. While some of these mutations can lead to cancer, many are harmless. When a mutation gives the cell an advantage over its neighbors, it is known as a driver mutation, and this allows the mutated cells to grow and spread.

Recently, research has begun to explore the possibility of driver mutations causing non-cancerous diseases by impacting the function of the tissue or influencing the spread of disease through the body.

Part 1

In previous work by scientists, these mutations have been shown to have an impact on diseases such as inflamatoy bowl disease. In this new study, researchers explored if the same was true for psoriasis.

Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory immune-mediated disease that causes patches of skin to become flaky or sore. The current cause of the condition is unknown and it is estimated that 125 million people worldwide—2% to 3% of the total population—have psoriasis.

This team took skin samples from the forearms of 111 people with psoriasis, taking samples from psoriasis patches and healthy skin. They used laser capture microdissection to isolate 1,182 samples, which were then analyzed by whole genome or exome sequencing.

They found minimal differences in the types of mutations seen in healthy skin versus psoriasis patches and only a slight increase in the number of mutations. In addition to this, no functional differences were seen between psoriasis and non-psoriasis tissue, suggesting that the condition is not linked to a specific somatic mutation in the skin.

The team identified four new driver mutations that gave skin cells an advantage over their neighbors, all found in both psoriasis patches and other skin tissue. They also found a mutational signature linked with the use of psoralens, a compound sometimes used as part of a treatment for psoriasis flare-ups. However, these mutations were found in patients who had been prescribed psoralens along with those who hadn't, suggesting that it could have come from environmental exposure.

 Sigurgeir Olafsson et al, Effects of psoriasis and psoralen exposure on the somatic mutation landscape of the skin, Nature Genetics (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s41588-023-01545-1

Part 2

Volcanic eruptions found to dampen Indian Ocean El Niño events 

Volcanic eruptions occurring in tropical regions (23°N/S of the equator) have been linked to abrupt disruption of global-scale climate cycles in the Indian Ocean over the last 1 million years in new research published in Geophysical Research Letters. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) are ocean-atmosphere climate interactions that were found to be disrupted for almost a decade before returning to pre-eruption baseline levels, and the effect increases with greater eruption intensity.

Benjamin H. Tiger et al, Tropical Volcanic Eruptions and Low Frequency Indo‐Pacific Variability Drive Extreme Indian Ocean Dipole Events, Geophysical Research Letters (2023). DOI: 10.1029/2023GL103991

Scientists isolate 'pre-emerging' bat coronavirus but also identify existing medication that potently neutralizes it

Repeated outbreaks of bat-derived coronaviruses among humans and other mammals have heightened the need for a broad range of therapeutics—monoclonal antibodies and antivirals—treatments that can come immediately "off-the-shelf" to address newly-emerging zoonotic threats.

A groundbreaking series of experiments by scientists at collaborating research centers has not only identified a "pre-emerging bat coronavirus," but investigators have additionally demonstrated that an off-the-shelf monoclonal antibody neutralized it potently. Additionally, in vitro tests of widely-used antivirals were also effective against the virus, researchers found.

The bat-derived coronavirus is more specifically known as BtCoV-422. And a neutralizing monoclocal antibody developed to treat Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus—MERS-CoV—has been available for years and is known as mAb JC57-11. MERS-CoV is a bat-derived zoonotic virus that infects dromedary camels, the animals that transmit the virus to people. BtCoV-422 is genetically similar to MERS-CoV.

Writing in Science Translational Medicine, investigators  who underscored a deceptively simple principle: the types of countermeasures that have worked against other coronaviruses, such as MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, should impact BtCoV-422. But while investigators found that most MERS-CoV–neutralizing monoclonal antibodies had very limited activity against the virus, mAb JC57-11 delivered a powerful one-two punch.

Longping V. Tse et al, A MERS-CoV antibody neutralizes a pre-emerging group 2c bat coronavirus, Science Translational Medicine (2023). DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adg5567

Asteroid dust caused 15-year winter that killed dinosaurs: Study

Around 66 million years ago, an asteroid bigger than Mount Everest smashed into Earth, killing off three quarters of all life on the planet—including the dinosaurs.

But exactly how the impact of the asteroid Chicxulub caused all those animals to go extinct has remained a matter of debate till now.

The leading theory recently has been that sulfur from the asteroid's impact—or soot from global wildfires it sparked—blocked out the sky and plunged the world into a long, dark winter, killing all but the lucky few.

However research published recently based on particles found at a key fossil site reasserted an earlier hypothesis: that the impact winter was caused by dust kicked up by the asteroid.

Fine silicate dust from pulverized rock would have stayed in the atmosphere for 15 years, dropping global temperatures by up to 15 degrees Celsius, researchers said in a study in the journal Nature Geoscience.

 Cem Berk Senel et al, Chicxulub impact winter sustained by fine silicate dust, Nature Geoscience (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s41561-023-01290-4

Life on Earth under 'existential threat': climate scientists

Climate change poses an "existential threat" to life on Earth, prominent scientists warned recently, in an assessment on this year's avalanche of heat records and weather extremes that they said are hitting more ferociously than expected.

With expectations that 2023 will be the hottest year on record, regions across the planet have been scorched by deadly heat waves.

Others have been hit by floods, or in some cases, have suffered both extremes in quick succession.

"The truth is that we are shocked by the ferocity of the extreme weather events in 2023. We are afraid of the uncharted territory that we have now entered," said an international coalition of authors in a new report published in the journal BioScience.

Their stark assessment: "Life on planet Earth is under siege". They said humanity had made "minimal progress" in curbing its planet-heating emissions, with major greenhouse gases at record levels, and subsidies for fossil fuels soaring last year.

The study on the state of the climate looked at recent data on 35 planetary "vital signs" and found 20 of these were at record extremes this year.

William Ripple et al, 2023 State of the Climate Report: Entering Uncharted Territory, BioScience (2023). DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biad080

Scientific Jargon - explained
'Climate Quitting':

Climate quitting means leaving your job due to concerns about your employer's impact on the climate or because you want to work directly on addressing climate issues.

Milky Way's Black Hole Is Spinning at Near Maximum

Pick any object in the Universe, and it is probably spinning. Asteroids tumble end over end, planets and moons rotate on their axes, and even black holes spin.

And for everything that spins, there is a maximum rate at which it can rotate. The black hole in our galaxy is spinning at nearly that maximum rate.

For objects such as the Earth, the maximum rate of rotation is defined by its surface gravity. The weight we feel while standing on the Earth isn't just due to the gravitational pull of the Earth.

Gravity pulls us toward the center of our world, but the Earth's rotation also tends to fling us outward away from the Earth. This "centrifugal" force is tiny, but it does mean that your weight at the equator is just slightly less than it is at the north or south pole.

With our 24-hour day, the weight difference between the equator and pole is just 0.3%. But Saturn's 10-hour day means that the difference is 19%. So much that Saturn bows outward a bit at its equator.

Now imagine a planet spinning so fast that the difference was 100%. At that point, the gravitational pull of the planet and its centrifugal force at the equator would cancel out.

If the world were to spin any faster, it would fly apart. It would likely fly apart at an even slower spin rate, but this is clearly the maximum rate of rotation.

For black holes, things are a bit different. Black holes aren't objects with a physical surface. They aren't made of material that could fly apart. But they still have a maximum rate of rotation.

Black holes are defined by their tremendous gravity, which distorts space and time around them. The event horizon of the black hole marks the point of no return for nearby objects, but it isn't a physical surface.

Part 1

The rotation of a black hole also isn't defined by the spin of physical mass, but rather by the twisting of spacetime around the black hole. When objects such as the Earth spin, they twist space around themselves very slightly. It's an effect known as frame dragging.

The spin of a black hole is defined by this frame-dragging effect. Black holes spin without the physical rotation of matter, just a twisted spacetime structure. This means there is an upper limit to this spin due to the inherent properties of space and time.

In Einstein's equations of general relativity, the spin of a black hole is measured by a quantity known as a, where a has to be between zero and one. If a black hole has no spin, then a = 0, and if it is at its maximal rotation, then a = 1.

This brings us to a new study on the rotation of the supermassive black hole in our galaxy. The team looked at radio and X-ray observations of the black hole to estimate its spin.

Due to the frame-dragging of spacetime near the black hole, the spectra of light from material near it is distorted. By observing the intensity of light at various wavelengths, the team was able to estimate the amount of spin.

What they found was that the a value for our black hole is between 0.84 and 0.96, which means it's rotating incredibly fast. At the upper range of the estimated rotation, it would be rotating at nearly the maximal rate.

This is even higher than the spin parameter of the black hole in M87, where a is estimated to be between 0.89 and 0.91.

Daly, Ruth A., et al. “New Black Hole Spin Values for Sagittarius A* Obtained with the Out....” Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (2023): stad3228.

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Can female fertility survive harsh cancer therapy? Scientists who turned to animal models say the answer is 'yes'

Cancer treatment can rob childbearing-age women of fertility, but new research has uncloaked how the body's own traitor protein conspires with chemo and other harsh therapies against the ovaries' primordial follicles, home of immature oocytes—the entire ovarian egg reserve.

A fertility-damaging protein called CHEK2, when triggered by chemo's destruction of DNA, is singlehandedly to blame for coordinating deletion of primordial follicles containing immature eggs—oocytes—according to a research group. 

 But in a stunning discovery, albeit in mouse models conducted as part of the research, the team found that blocking CHEK2 with an inhibitor stops the protein's follicle-destroying activity, preserving the vital ovarian egg reserve and fertility. CHEK2 is an attractive target for future fertility-preserving interventions that ensure reproductive health and the likelihood of a successful pregnancy for women cancer survivors. When CHEK2 is deficient, these scientists say, oocytes can survive chemotherapy.

 Chihiro Emori et al, CHEK2 signaling is the key regulator of oocyte survival after chemotherapy, Science Advances (2023). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adg0898

Mining asteroids: A new method to extract metals from asteroids

Extraterrestrial mining and metal processing are key strategies for space exploration. In a new study in Scientific Reports,  a team of scientists in materials science, conducted catalytic dissolution of metals from meteorite proxies of metal-rich asteroids by using a deep eutectic solvent. These solvents are important for extraterrestrial mining since they can be designed to have relatively low vapor pressures and can comprise organic waste products from extraterrestrial settlements.

The team studied three types of meteorites, two chondrites, and one iron meteorite. The chondrite samples contained silicates with metal-rich phases such as native alloys, sulfides, and oxides, of which, the metallic iron-nickel and troilite formed the most abundant metal-bearing phases in all three samples, with specific hues in the iron-rich meteorite. The scientists subjected the samples to chemical micro-etching experiments with iodine and iron (III) chloride as oxidizing agents in a deep eutectic solvent formed by mixing choline chloride and ethylene glycol.

It is possible to establish viable extraterrestrial metal extractions, and the efficient use of local materials and resource recovery from space can significantly reduce the mass, cost, and environmental constraints of space missions. These large metal-rich asteroids are parental bodies of iron meteorites and metal-rich carbonaceous chondrites.  These metals can provide a local source of materials to establish a human settlement in space or other terrestrial bodies. Near Earth asteroids contain valuable platinum group metals and iron, nickel, and cobalt greater than that found on the Earth's surface.

The use of asteroids as mineral and metal resources provide a key step during space exploration with further investigations required for viable economic activity. The proposed technology is at a nascent stage and is very promising for metal recovery.

Rodolfo Marin Rivera et al, A novel method for extracting metals from asteroids using non-aqueous deep eutectic solvents, Scientific Reports (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-44152-0

Humans are disrupting natural 'salt cycle' on a global scale

The planet's demand for salt comes at a cost to the environment and human health, according to a new scientific review . It  revealed that human activities are making Earth's air, soil and freshwater saltier, which could pose an "existential threat" if current trends continue.

Geologic and hydrologic processes bring salts to Earth's surface over time, but human activities such as mining and land development are rapidly accelerating the natural "salt cycle." Agriculture, construction, water and road treatment, and other industrial activities can also intensify salinization, which harms biodiversity and makes drinking water unsafe in extreme cases.

When you accumulate so much salt it could affect the functioning of vital parts or ecosystems.

When people think of salt, they tend to think of sodium chloride, but this work over the years has shown that human beings have disturbed other types of salts, including ones related to limestone, gypsum and calcium sulfate. 

When dislodged in higher doses, these ions can cause environmental problems.

Salt has even infiltrated the air. In some regions, lakes are drying up and sending plumes of saline dust into the atmosphere. In areas that experience snow, road salts can become aerosolized, creating sodium and chloride particulate matter.

Salinization is also associated with "cascading" effects. For example, saline dust can accelerate the melting of snow and harm communities.

 Because of their structure, salt ions can bind to contaminants in soils and sediments, forming "chemical cocktails" that circulate in the environment and have detrimental effects.

The anthropogenic salt cycle, Nature Reviews Earth & Environment (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s43017-023-00485-y

Antibiotics for common childhood infections no longer effective in many parts of the world

A new study has found that drugs to treat common infections in children and babies are no longer effective in large parts of the world, due to high rates of antibiotic resistance.

The  study found many antibiotics recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) had less than 50% effectiveness in treating childhood infections such as pneumonia, sepsis (bloodstream infections) and meningitis. The findings show global guidelines on antibiotic use are outdated and need updates.

The most seriously affected regions are in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, including neighboring Indonesia and the Philippines, where thousands of unnecessary deaths in children resulting from antibiotic resistance occur each year.

The WHO has declared that antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the top 10 global public health threats facing humanity. In newborns, an estimated three million cases of sepsis occur globally each year, with up to 570,000 deaths. Many of these are due to lack of effective antibiotics to treat resistant bacteria.

The findings, published in The Lancet regional Health—Southeast Asia, add to mounting evidence that common bacteria responsible for sepsis and meningitis in children are often resistant to prescribed antibiotics.

The research reveals the urgent need for global antibiotic guidelines to be updated, to reflect the rapidly evolving rates of AMR. 

The study found that one antibiotic in particular, ceftriaxone, was likely to be effective in treating only one in three cases of sepsis or meningitis in newborn babies.  Another antibiotic, gentamicin, was found likely to be effective in treating fewer than half of all sepsis and meningitis cases in children.

Gentamicin is commonly prescribed alongside aminopenicillins, which the study showed also has low effectiveness in combating bloodstream infections in babies and children.

AMR is more problematic for children than adults, as new antibiotics are less likely to be trialed on and made available to children.

The study analyzed 6,648 bacterial isolates from 11 countries across 86 publications to review antibiotic susceptibility for common bacteria causing childhood infections.

 Coverage gaps in empiric antibiotic regimens used to treat serious bacterial infections in neonates and children in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, The Lancet Regional Health—Southeast Asia (2023). DOI: 10.1016/j.lansea.2023.100291

How sunflowers 'see' the sun: Study describes a novel mechanism

Sunflowers famously turn their faces to follow the sun as it crosses the sky. But how do sunflowers "see" the sun to follow it? New work from plant biologists published Oct. 31 in PLOS Biology, shows that they use a different, novel mechanism from that previously thought.

Most plants show phototropism—the ability to grow toward a light source. Plant scientists had assumed that sunflowers' heliotropism, the ability to follow the sun, would be based on the same basic mechanism, which is governed by molecule called phototropin and responds to light at the blue end of the spectrum.

Sunflowers swing their heads by growing a little more on the east side of the stem—pushing the head west—during the day and a little more on the west side at night, so the head swings back toward the east. 

Researchers have  previously shown how sunflowers use their internal circadian clock to anticipate the sunrise, and to coordinate the opening of florets with the appearance of pollinating insects in the morning.

Indoors, sunflowers grew straight toward the light, activating genes associated with phototropin. But the plants grown outdoors, swinging their heads with the sun, showed a completely different pattern of gene expression. There was no apparent difference in phototropin between one side of the stem and another.

The researchers have not yet identified the genes involved in heliotropism.

Blocking blue, ultraviolet, red or far-red light with shade boxes had no effect on the heliotropism response. This shows that there are likely multiple pathways, responding to different wavelengths of light, to achieve the same goal.

Sunflowers are quick learners. When plants grown in the lab were moved outdoors, they started tracking the sun on the first day. That behaviour was accompanied by a burst of gene expression on the shaded side of the plant that did not recur on subsequent days. That suggests some kind of "rewiring" is going on.

 Apart from revealing previously unknown pathways for light-sensing and growth in plants, the discovery has broad relevance. Things that you define in a controlled environment like a growth chamber may not work out in the real world.

Multiple light signaling pathways control solar tracking in sunflowers, PLoS Biology (2023). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002344. journals.plos.org/plosbiology/ … journal.pbio.3002344

Study directly links high insulin levels to pancreatic cancer

A new study from researchers reveals a direct link between high insulin levels, common among patients with obesity and type 2 diabetes, and pancreatic cancer.

The study, published in Cell Metabolism, provides the first detailed explanation of why people with obesity and type 2 diabetes are at an increased risk of pancreatic cancer. The research demonstrates that excessive insulin levels overstimulate pancreatic acinar cells, which produce digestive juices. This overstimulation leads to inflammation that converts these cells into precancerous cells.

While obesity and type 2 diabetes had previously been established as risk factors for pancreatic cancer, the exact mechanisms by which this occurred remained unclear. This new study sheds light on the role of insulin and its receptors in this process.

Hyperinsulinemia acts via acinar insulin receptors to initiate pancreatic cancer by increasing digestive enzyme production and inflammation, Cell Metabolism (2023). DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2023.10.003. www.cell.com/cell-metabolism/f … 1550-4131(23)00372-8

Star fishes are just heads!

For centuries, naturalists have puzzled over what might constitute the head of a sea star, commonly called a "starfish." When looking at a worm, or a fish, it's clear which end is the head and which is the tail. But with their five identical arms—any of which can take the lead in propelling sea stars across the seabed—it's been anybody's guess how to determine the front end of the organism from the back. This unusual body plan has led many to conclude that sea stars perhaps don't have a head at all.

Researchers now have published a study finding that the truth is closer to the absolute reverse. In short, while the team detected gene signatures associated with head development just about everywhere in juvenile sea stars, expression of genes that code for an animal's torso and tail sections were largely missing.

Researchers used a variety of high-tech molecular and genomic techniques to understand where different genes were expressed during the development and growth of sea stars. A team  used micro-CT scanning to understand the shape and structure of the animal in unprecedented detail.

In another surprising finding, molecular signatures typically associated with the front-most portion of the head were localized to the middle of each of the sea star's arms, with these signatures becoming progressively more posterior moving out towards the arms' edges.

The research, published Nov. 1 in Nature, suggests that, far from being headless, over evolutionary time sea stars lost their bodies to become only heads.

It's as if the sea star is completely missing a trunk, and is best described as just a head crawling along the seafloor.

Almost all animals, including humans, are bilaterally symmetrical, meaning they can be split into two mirrored halves along a single axis extending from their head to their tail.

But the body plan of sea stars has long confounded scientists' understanding of animal evolution. Instead of displaying bilateral symmetry, adult sea stars—and related echinoderms, such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers—have a five-fold axis of symmetry without a clear head or tail.

 Laurent Formery, Molecular evidence of anteroposterior patterning in adult echinoderms, Nature (2023). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06669-2. www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06669-2

New insights into the India–Asia collision in the Western Himalayas dating back to circa 55 million years

New Sangdanlin Section Data Suggests a Large Greater India

Human emissions have increased mercury in the atmosphere sevenfold: Study

Humans have increased the concentration of potentially toxic mercury in the atmosphere sevenfold since the beginning of the modern era around 1500 C.E., according to new research .

Researchers developed a new method to accurately estimate how much mercury is emitted annually from volcanos, the largest single natural emitter of mercury. The team used that estimate—along with a computer model—to reconstruct pre-anthropogenic atmospheric mercury levels. The researchers estimated that before humans started pumping mercury into the atmosphere, it contained on average about 580 megagrams of mercury. However, in 2015, independent research that looked at all available atmospheric measurements estimated the atmospheric mercury reservoir was about 4,000 Mg—nearly 7 times larger than the natural condition estimated in this study. Human emissions of mercury from coal-fired power plants, waste-incineration, industry and mining make up the difference. 

Methylmercury is a potent neurotoxicant that bioaccumulates in fish and other organisms—including us.

 Benjamin M. Geyman et al, Impacts of Volcanic Emissions on the Global Biogeochemical Mercury Cycle: Insights From Satellite Observations and Chemical Transport Modeling, Geophysical Research Letters (2023). DOI: 10.1029/2023GL104667

Double gravitational lenses?!

How cool is it that the very universe we are trying to explore is actually providing us with telescopes to probe the darkest corners of space and time?

The alignment of large clusters of galaxies is the usual culprit whose gravity bends distant light to give us nature's own telescopes, but now our own Quora  physicist Viktor T Toth poses the question, "Can there be multiple gravitational lenses lined up and can they provide a 'communication bridge' to allow civilizations to communicate?"

 Albert Einstein in his general theory of relativity,  describes how the presence of matter can distort space around them. The famous analogy of placing a bowling ball at the center of a large rubber sheet causes a dip centered around the mass of the bowling ball. Any object rolling past the ball would find itself traveling through "curved space" and, therefore, find its path to be altered. This very concept is used successfully by space mission planners to adjust the trajectory of spacecraft exploring the solar system.

The same concept applies to light as it passes by massive objects like galaxy clusters and is the principle behind the gravitational lense. The first evidence of light being deflected by a massive object was performed in 1919 by Arthur Eddington and Frank Watson Dyson during a total solar eclipse. Gravitational lenses entered the scene 60 years later when they were first observed in 1979 by Dennis Walsh, Bob Carswell, and Ray Weymann using the 2.1m telescope at the Kitt Peak National Observatory.

Part 1

In a fascinating paper authored by Toth and posted to the arXiv preprint server, he explores the possibility that multiple gravitational lenses might provide extra amplification of light to provide a communication bridge between distant civilizations.

In a conventional gravitational lens, a large mass—such as a cluster of galaxies—sits between a more distant object and the Earth. As the light travels from the distant object, it is bent around the galaxy cluster, providing a lensing effect to astronomers on Earth, allowing them to a) study the distribution of matter in the lensing cluster but also to observe the more distant object a little more easily. Toth proposes that, just like a conventional telescope that uses multiple lenses, a multiple gravitational lens could provide even more amplification than a single system.

Toth explores combinations of multiple gravitational lenses using a variety of methods but focuses (sorry) attention on a two-lens system (so-called gravitational lens bridge), which is aligned along the central axis of the system, but found no advantages and no additional signal amplification over the results from a single lens system. In addition, photon mapping techniques were applied with the same outcome; a double-lens system offers no advantage over a single-lens system.

Applying the wave theory of light to the same two-lens system revealed the same results, but using computer graphics to perform ray tracing (which cannot be used to estimate amplification) can help to highlight visual features other techniques would be unable to produce. Using this approach, it suggested a two-lens system would produce two concentric Einstein rings; however, they would be very difficult to detect in real-world scenarios. In summary, then, a fascinating concept, especially the possibility of using a lens bridge for communication with distant civilizations, but the results are less than promising. Yes, there may well be double gravitational lenses, but as this paper shows, it is unlikely we will be able to detect them for now and sadly I suspect the idea of using them as a long-distance cosmic telephone will for now remain science fiction.

 Viktor T. Toth, Non-coplanar gravitational lenses and the "communication bridge", arXiv (2023). DOI: 10.48550/arxiv.2310.15957

Part 2

How Could a Piece of the Moon Become a Near-Earth Asteroid? Researchers Have an Answer

A team of astronomers has found a new clue that a recently discovered near-Earth asteroid, Kamo`oalewa, might be a chunk of the moon. They hypothesized that the asteroid was ejected from the lunar surface during a meteorite strike–and they found that a rare pathway could have allowed Kamo`oalewa to get into orbit around the sun while remaining close to the orbits of the Earth and the Moon.

Scientists Just Discovered a New Human Sense of Touch

A new study reveals a previously undiscovered way that we can feel light touches: directly through our hair follicles. Before now, it was thought that only nerve endings in the skin and around the hair follicles could transmit the sensation.

Researchers used an RNA sequencing process to find that cells in part of the hair follicle called the outer root sheath (ORS) had a higher percentage of touch-sensitive receptors than equivalent cells in the skin.

Touch-sensing nerve cells are known as mechanoreceptors. They're the reason we can feel everything from a light breeze to a firm press. In this case, the hair follicle cells were interacting specifically with low-threshold mechanoreceptors (LTMRs), capable of feeling gentle touches.

https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adh3273

Biomimetic melanin heals skin injuries from sunburn and chemical burns

Melanin in humans and animals provides pigmentation to the skin, eyes and hair. The substance protects your cells from sun damage with increased pigmentation in response to sunlight—a process commonly referred to as tanning. That same pigment in your skin also naturally scavenges free radicals in response to damaging environmental pollution from industrial sources and automobile exhaust fumes.

Imagine a skin cream that heals damage occurring throughout the day when your skin is exposed to sunlight or environmental toxins. That's the potential of a synthetic, biomimetic melanin developed by scientists.

In a new study,  scientists show that their synthetic melanin, mimicking the natural melanin in human skin, can be applied topically to injured skin, where it accelerates wound healing. These effects occur both in the skin itself and systemically in the body. When applied in a cream, the synthetic melanin can protect skin from sun exposure and heals skin injured by sun damage or chemical burns, the scientists said.

The technology works by scavenging free radicals, which are produced by injured skin such as a sunburn. Left unchecked, free radical activity damages cells and ultimately may result in skin aging and skin cancer.

Topical Application of Synthetic Melanin Promotes Tissue Repair, npj Regenerative Medicine (2023).

Research shows one sleepless night can rapidly reverse depression for several days

Most people who have pulled an all-nighter are all too familiar with that "tired and wired" feeling. Although the body is physically exhausted, the brain feels slap-happy, loopy and almost giddy.

Now neurobiologists are the first to uncover what produces this punch-drunk effect. In a new study, researchers induced mild, acute sleep deprivation in mice and then examined their behaviors and brain activity. Not only did dopamine release increase during the acute sleep loss period, synaptic plasticity also was enhanced—literally rewiring the brain to maintain the bubbly mood for the next few days.

These new findings could help researchers better understand how mood states transition naturally. It also could lead to a more complete understanding of how fast-acting antidepressants (like ketamine) work and help researchers identify previously unknown targets for new antidepressant medications.

Chronic sleep loss is well studied, and it's uniformly detrimental effects are widely documented and it is not good.Scientists long have known that acute perturbations in sleep are associated with altered mental states and behaviors. Alterations of sleep and circadian rhythms in patients, for example, can trigger mania or occasionally reverse depressive episodes.

 But brief sleep loss—like the equivalent of a student pulling an all-nighter before an exam—is less understood. Now researchers found that sleep loss induces a potent antidepressant effect and rewires the brain. This is an important reminder of how our casual activities, such as a sleepless night, can fundamentally alter the brain in as little as a few hours.

Mingzheng Wu et al, Dopamine pathways mediating affective state transitions after sleep loss, Neuron (2023). DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2023.10.002. www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(23)00758-4

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Wildfire plumes deposit ash on seawater, fueling growth of phytoplankton

A team of marine biologists has found that large wildfires can deposit large amounts of ash on seawater, fueling the growth of phytoplankton. In their study, reported in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, the group tested the impact of ash from a major wildfire on seawater samples in their lab.

Prior research has shown that large forest fires and wildfires produce a large amount of ash that remains in the air for a period of time before falling. Prior research has also found that when ash falls onto land, the result is usually positive—the ash serves as a form of fertilizer. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said for rivers and lakes—the sudden infusion of large amounts of toxic metals can kill fish and other aquatic creatures such as mollusks. For larger bodies of water, it can lead to algal blooms that remove oxygen from the water, resulting in dead zones. For this new study, the research team tracked wildfire plumes over the ocean. They collected samples of ash generated by the Thomas Fire in 2017 and brought them back to their lab for testing. The team mixed samples with fresh seawater in a jar. After a few days, they found that the ash/water solution contained high levels of dissolved nutrients, such as nitrogen and silicic acid. They found it also contained high levels of metals. The researchers then added more seawater to their ash/water solution that also contained microorganisms native to the ocean. They found that after several days, the number of microorganisms was twice as high as it was in a control sample of seawater. They also noted that they did not find any evidence that the ash had a toxic impact on the sea microorganisms. They suggest their work implies that wildfire plumes that settle on the ocean surface can lead to growth of phytoplankton communities.

T. M. Ladd et al, Food for all? Wildfire ash fuels growth of diverse eukaryotic plankton, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (2023). DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1817

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Mysteries of fainting revealed Experiments in mice have identified a specific group of sensory neurons that is responsible for syncope, the brief loss of consciousness during fainting. The cells — called NPY2R vagal sensory neurons — are found in the vagus nerve, which connects the brain to the heart and other organs. Scientists activated these cells in mice that were roaming about, which then fainted within a few seconds. Their pupils dilated, their eyes rolled back and their heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate all dipped. The team also found that a region of the brain’s hypothalamus is responsible for recovery from fainting.
Part 1

What causes fainting? Scientists finally have an answer

Neurons in the brain stop working very quickly if you deprive them of oxygen or glucose. If you add oxygen again, they’ll simply resume their work and do so just as quickly.

To better understand what happens inside the brain during syncope, the researchers used electrodes to record the activity of thousands of neurons from various brain regions in mice as the animals fainted. Activity decreased in all areas of the brain, except one specific region of the hypothalamus known as the periventricular zone (PVZ).

The authors then blocked the activity of the periventricular zone, and the mice experienced longer fainting episodes. Stimulating the region caused the animals to wake up and start moving again. The team suggests that a coordinated neural network that includes NPY2R VSNs and the PVZ regulates fainting and recovery.

Lovelace, J. W. et al. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06680-7 (2023).

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06680-7.epdf?sharing_tok...

Part 3

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Wearable devices may prevent astronauts getting 'lost' in space

Taking space  flight is dangerous. In leaving the Earth's surface, we lose many of the cues we need to orient ourselves, and that spatial disorientation can be deadly. Astronauts normally need intensive training to protect against it. But scientists have now found that wearable devices which vibrate to give orientation cues may boost the efficacy of this training significantly, making spaceflight slightly safer.

Long-duration spaceflight will cause many physiological and psychological stressors, which will make astronauts very susceptible to spatial disorientation. When disoriented, an astronaut will no longer be able to rely on their own internal sensors, which they have depended on for their whole lives.
Part 1

The researchers used sensory deprivation and a multi-axis rotation device to test their vibrotactors in simulated spaceflight, so the senses participants would normally rely on were useless. Could the vibrotactors correct the misleading cues the participants would receive from their vestibular systems, and could participants be trained to trust them?

In total, 30 participants were recruited, of whom 10 received training to balance in the rotation device, 10 received the vibrotactors, and the remaining 10 received both. All participants were shown a video of the rotation device and told how it worked: moving like an inverted pendulum until it reached a crash boundary, unless it was stabilized by a person sitting in the device controlling it with a joystick.

Additional training, for the participants who received it, included tasks that taught participants to disengage from their vestibular sense and rely on the vibrotactors instead of their natural gravitational cues. These tasks involved searching for hidden non-upright balance points, which meant participants had to ignore their desire to align to upright and focus on the vibrotactors.

All participants were given a blindfold, earplugs, and white noise to listen to. Those with vibrotactors had four strapped to each arm, which would buzz when they moved away from the balance point. Each participant took part in 40 trials, aiming to keep the rotation device as close to the balance point as possible.

For half the trials, the rotation device operated on a vertical roll plane. This was considered an Earth analog because participants could use their natural gravitational cues for orientation. During the second half, which acted as a spaceflight analog, the rotation device operated on a horizontal roll plane where those gravitational cues could no longer help.

After each block of trials, participants were asked to rate how disoriented they felt and how much they trusted the vibrotactors. The scientists measured their success by looking at how often they crashed and how well they controlled their balance.
All the groups were initially disoriented in the spaceflight analog. The scientists expected this, because participants could not rely on the natural gravitational cues that they usually use. Nearly all participants reported that they trusted the vibrotactors, but they also reported confusion from conflicts between their internal cues and the vibrotactors.

The participants wearing vibrotactors still performed better than those who only received training. The training-only group crashed more frequently, moved around the balance point more, and accidentally destabilized themselves more often. Receiving the training did help, though. As the trials continued, the group who received both training and vibrotactors performed best.

However, even with training, the participants didn't perform as well as they did in the Earth analog. They may have needed more time to integrate cues from the vibrotactors, or the buzzing from the vibrotactors may not have given a strong enough danger signal.

"A pilot's cognitive trust in this external device will most likely not be enough" . "Instead, the trust has to be at a deeper—almost sub-cognitive—level. To achieve this, specialized training will be required."
Part 2

If the sensors succeed in more extensive trials, the scientists said, the possible applications for spaceflight are many—from helping astronauts land safely on the surface of a planet, to supporting them as they move outside a vehicle in space.

Vibrotactile Feedback as a Countermeasure for Spatial Disorientation, Frontiers in Physiology (2023). DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1249962
Part 3
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Researchers find evidence of mpox circulating in humans since 2016

A large international team of medical researchers and epidemiologists has found evidence that monkeypox (mpox) has been circulating in humans since 2016. In their study, reported in the journal Science, the group used Bayesian evolutionary analysis of the mpox virus to show that its genomic history includes years of change due to human infections.

Mpox was first identified in the 1950s after an illness struck a group of research monkeys in Denmark. Twenty years later, the first case was detected in a human in Africa. Over the following decades, several cases of the disease were seen in humans and all were attributed to the virus jumping from other mammals.

Then, in 2017, an outbreak occurred in Nigeria and by 2022, it had spread across the globe, demonstrating that the virus had evolved to jump from human to human. In this new effort, the research team took a closer look at the genome of the virus behind mpox to learn more about its evolutionary history, particularly how it relates to human infections. The researchers sequenced the genome of the mpox virus to learn more about its evolutionary history. They found that the clade IIb was the one that had spread around the world. They also noted that it looked different from other strains that had been seen before in Africa.

They found a mutation that had led to the production of an enzyme called APOBEC3, which was found to cause further mutations that alter genome base pairs. It was also found to have come about due to infections in humans. That allowed the team to trace the evolutionary history of the virus as it infected humans—they found such mutations going back to approximately 2016, which strongly suggests that the virus has been transmittable between humans since that year. The research team concludes that there is a strong likelihood of multiple cases of small mpox outbreaks that have not been recognized, allowing the virus to spread under the radar. They further suggest stronger surveillance methods be established because the virus is still mutating rapidly and could become deadlier.

Áine O'Toole et al, APOBEC3 deaminase editing in mpox virus as evidence for sustained human transmission since at least 2016, Science (2023). DOI: 10.1126/science.adg8116

Seeing the unseen: How butterflies can help scientists detect cancer

There are many creatures on our planet with more advanced senses than humans. Turtles can sense Earth's magnetic field. Mantis shrimp can detect polarized light. Elephants can hear much lower frequencies than humans can. Butterflies can perceive a broader range of colors, including ultraviolet (UV) light.

Inspired by the enhanced visual system of the Papilio xuthus butterfly, a team of researchers have developed an imaging sensor capable of "seeing" into the UV range inaccessible to human eyes. The design of the sensor uses stacked photodiodes and perovskite nanocrystals (PNCs) capable of imaging different wavelengths in the UV range. Using the spectral signatures of biomedical markers, such as amino acids, this new imaging technology is even capable of differentiating between cancer cells and normal cells with 99% confidence.

Researchers have taken inspiration from the visual system of butterflies, who are able to perceive multiple regions in the UV spectrum, and designed a camera that replicates that functionality. They did this by using novel perovskite nanocrystals, combined with silicon imaging technology, and this new camera technology can detect multiple UV regions.

UV light is electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than that of  visible light(but longer than X-rays). We are most familiar with UV radiation from the sun and the dangers it poses to human health. UV light is categorized into three different regions—UVA, UVB and UVC— based on different wavelength ranges. Because humans cannot see UV light, it is challenging to capture UV information, especially discerning the small differences between each region.

Butterflies, however, can see these small variations in the UV spectrum, like humans can see shades of blue and green.UV light is incredibly difficult to capture, it just gets absorbed by everything, and butterflies have managed to do it extremely well.

Part 1

Humans have trichromatic vision with three photoreceptors, where every color perceived can be made from a combination of red, green and blue. Butterflies, however, have compound eyes, with six (or more) photoreceptor classes with distinct spectral sensitivities. In particular, the Papilio xuthus, a yellow, Asian swallowtail butterfly, has not only blue, green and red, but also violet, ultraviolet and broadband receptors. Further, butterflies have fluorescent pigments that allow them to convert UV light into visible light which can then be easily sensed by their photoreceptors. This allows them to perceive a broader range of colors and details in their environment.

Beyond the increased number of photoreceptors, butterflies also exhibit a unique tiered structure in their photoreceptors. To replicate the UV sensing mechanism of the Papilio xuthus butterfly, the UIUC team has emulated the process by combining a thin layer of PNCs with a tiered array of silicon photodiodes.

PNCs are a class of semiconductor nanocrystals that display unique properties similar to that of quantum dots—changing the size and composition of the particle changes the absorption and emission properties of the material. In the last few years, PNCs have emerged as an interesting material for different sensing applications, such as solar cells and LEDs. PNCs are extremely good at detecting UV (and even lower) wavelengths that traditional silicon detectors are not. In the new imaging sensor, the PNC layer is able to absorb UV photons and re-emit light in the visible (green) spectrum which is then detected by the tiered silicon photodiodes. Processing of these signals allows for mapping and identification of UV signatures.

Part 2

There are various biomedical markers present in cancerous tissues at higher concentrations than in healthy tissues—amino acids (building blocks of proteins), proteins, and enzymes. When excited with UV light, these markers light up and fluoresce in the UV and part of the visible spectrum, in a process called autofluorescence. 

Because cancer and healthy cells have different concentrations of markers and therefore different spectral signatures, the two classes of cells can be differentiated based on their fluorescence in the UV spectrum. The team evaluated their imaging device on its ability to discriminate cancer-related markers and found that is capable of differentiating between cancer and healthy cells with 99% confidence.

One of the biggest challenges is knowing how much tissue to remove to ensure clear margins and such a sensor can help facilitate the decision making process when a surgeon is removing a cancerous tumor.

"This new imaging technology is enabling us to differentiate cancerous versus healthy cells and is opening up new and exciting applications beyond just health.

Cheng Chen et al, Bioinspired, vertically stacked, and perovskite nanocrystal–enhanced CMOS imaging sensors for resolving UV spectral signatures, Science Advances (2023). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adk3860. www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adk3860

Part 3

How can we avoid drinking forever chemicals and arsenic?

per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, also known as PFAS or forever chemicals, which are used to protect clothing, cookware, cosmetics, and other products from water, grease, or oil. But those chemicals can leach out of those goods to haunt our food, air, plants, and drinking water. So far, scientists have found that PFAS exposure could lead to liver and immune system damage, increased risk of kidney or testicular cancer, birth defects, and other health and environmental problems.

And one of the most common ways to ingest these chemicals is through contaminated water.

PFAS are typically present at really, really low concentrations. But they can be carcinogenic even at low concentrations.

Luckily, we can extract PFAS and other unwanted contaminants, like arsenic or calcium, from our water using a process called ion exchange. And soon, removing PFAS will not be optional. In June 2023, the Environmental Protection Agency announced its plan to require water utilities to reach near-zero levels of PFAS in drinking water. That means many water treatment facilities will need to upgrade their systems to target this insidious chemical.

And ion exchange technologies are some of the only selective separation technologies we have that can get these forever chemicals out of water.

Source: US National Renewable Energy Laboratory  

Cancer trial results show power of weaponized antibodies

A living bandage: Wound dressing uses probiotic bacteria to combat biofilms

Chronic wounds: If an injury has not healed after four weeks, there is a wound healing disorder. Sometimes, seemingly harmless tissue damage can develop into a permanent health problem or even blood poisoning.

Treatment is particularly difficult because germs that know how to protect themselves perfectly settle here. These bacteria form a biofilm, a stubborn compound of various pus pathogens. For their own protection, they produce a layer of mucus with which they attach themselves to surfaces. Antibiotics or disinfectants reach their limits because they cannot get to the dangerous germs.

A research team  is currently developing a wound dressing that uses "good" probiotic bacteria to combat biofilms. The researchers recently published a proof of concept in the journal Microbes and Infection.

They used living probiotic bacteria for the new dressing. They are found in healthy intestinal flora and play a major role in the production of foods such as yogurt and cheese. The used probiotic lactobacilli are biocompatible and create an acidic environment by producing lactic acid. 

This is intended to push the unfavourable, alkaline pH in chronic wounds in the right, i.e., acidic, direction. In the laboratory experiments, the bacteria were able to induce a strongly acidic pH of 4 in the culture medium. At the same time, the probiotics promoted the migration of human fibroblasts under the investigated conditions.

Finally, the beneficial bacteria were integrated into a dressing that protects chronic wounds from further infection. This also allowed the living lactobacilli to produce lactic acid in a protected environment. As desired, the dressing released the acidic product into the environment in a controlled and steady manner.

In laboratory tests, the dressing material with integrated probiotics was able to completely remove a typical biofilm of skin pathogens in a culture dish. The question now was: Does the dressing containing beneficial bacteria also pass the test with human skin?

The researchers created artificial wounds with a diameter of two millimeters on small tissue samples and allowed a biofilm of wound pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa to grow. In this three-dimensional model of a human skin infection, the probiotics-containing dressing reduced the number of pathogens by 99.999%. In addition, the researchers were able to prove that the probiotics do not harm human skin cells and triggers the production of inflammatory response of the cells.

Zhihao Li et al, Topical application of Lactobacilli successfully eradicates Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms and promotes wound healing in chronic wounds, Microbes and Infection (2023). DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2023.105176

Plastic waste in rivers may carry dangerous microbes

Plastic litter in rivers might be allowing dangerous pathogens to hitch-hike downstream, a new study published recently found.

The research, which focused on one river, found that dumped plastic, wooden sticks and the water itself were a breeding ground  for communities of microorganisms, potentially providing a reservoir for bacteria and viruses known to cause human diseases and antibiotic resistance.

These findings indicate that plastic  in freshwater bodies may contribute to the transport of potential pathogens and antibiotic resistance genes.

This could have indirect but significant implications for human health.

Rivers are the main way plastic enters the world's oceans, channeling anywhere between 3.5 thousand metric tons to 2.41 million metric tons of the manmade material to the sea annually.

When plastic ends up in water its surface is overrun within minutes by nearby microbes. The researchers submerged samples for a week in the River Sowe in Warwickshire and West Midlands England, downstream from a wastewater treatment plant. They found significant differences in the microbe communities depending on the material sampled.

Vinko Zadjelovic, Microbial hitchhikers harbouring antimicrobial‑resistance genes in the riverine plastisphere, Microbiome (2023). DOI: 10.1186/s40168-023-01662-3. www.biomedcentral.com/articles … 6/s40168-023-01662-3