Forget Billions of Years: Scientists Have Grown Diamonds in Just 150 Minutes

Natural diamonds take billions of years to form in the extreme pressures and temperatures deep underground. Synthetic forms can be produced far quicker, but they typically still require some intense squishing for up to several weeks. A new method based on a mix of liquid metals can pop out an artificial diamond in a matter of minutes, without the need for a giant squeeze. While high temperatures were still required, in the region of 1,025°C or 1,877°F, a continuous diamond film was formed in 150 minutes, and at 1 atm (or standard atmosphere unit). That's the equivalent of the pressure we feel at sea level, and tens of thousands of times less than the pressure normally required. The team behind the innovative approach, led by researchers from the Institute for Basic Science in South Korea, is confident that the process can be scaled up to make a significant difference in the production of synthetic diamonds. -- Dissolving carbon into liquid metal for the manufacture of diamond isn't entirely new. General Electric developed a process half a century ago using molten iron sulfide But these processes still required pressures of 5–6 gigapascals and a diamond 'seed' for the carbon to cling to. "We discovered a method to grow diamonds at 1 atm pressure and under a moderate temperature by using a liquid metal alloy," write the researchers in their published paper. The reduction in pressure was achieved using a carefully mixed blend of liquid metals: gallium, iron, nickel, and silicon. A custom-made vacuum system was built inside a graphite casing to very rapidly heat and then cool the metal while it was exposed to a combination of methane and hydrogen. These conditions cause carbon atoms from the methane to spread into the melted metal, acting as seeds for the diamonds. After just 15 minutes, small fragments of diamond crystals extruded from the liquid metal just beneath the surface, while two-and-a-half hours of exposure produced a continuous diamond film. Though the concentration of carbon forming the crystals decreased at a depth of just a few hundred nanometers, the researchers expect the process can be improved with a few tweaks.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07339-7

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The Sex of Your Doctor Could Have a Concerning Effect on Your Prognosis

Patients treated by a female physician are less likely to die or to be readmitted to hospital than those treated by a physician who is male, according to a new study by a team of researchers from the US and Japan.
And if the patient happens to also be female, the difference is even more pronounced, especially so when they're severely ill.

While this study doesn't dive deeply into the reasons for the disparity, it supports previous research that comes to similar conclusions.
What these findings indicate is that female and male physicians practice medicine differently, and these differences have a meaningful impact on patients' health outcomes.
The team analyzed data from US Medicare sources describing 458,108 female and 318,819 male patients hospitalized between 2016 and 2019. All patients were over the age of 65, and just under a third of both male and female patients were seen by female physicians.

This info was then referenced against 30-day mortality rates (from the date of admission) and 30-day readmission rates (from the date of discharge). In both cases, female doctors led to better outcomes.

While the differences don't show direct cause and effect, and weren't huge – adjusted mortality rates of 8.15 percent (female doctor) vs 8.38 percent (male doctor) for female patients, for example – they represent a statistically significant gap that shouldn't be there at all. To put that difference into perspective, it amounts to 1 death for every 417 hospitalizations.
It is important to note that female physicians provide high-quality care, and therefore, having more female physicians benefits patients from a societal point-of-view.
The study authors suggest several reasons could be behind the discrepancies, which have been spotted before in different medical scenarios. It's possible that female doctors communicate better with female patients, the researchers say, or that male doctors are more likely to underestimate the severity of conditions experienced by female patients.

There might also be less embarrassment and discomfort between female doctors and female patients, the research team suggests, meaning more honesty about certain conditions and improved diagnosis and treatment.

The researchers want to see more done to improve sex diversity in hospital settings, and to make sure the quality of care is the same no matter whether patients or physicians are male or female – and for that to happen, more studies will be needed looking at why the differences exist.
Further research on the underlying mechanisms linking physician gender with patient outcomes, and why the benefit of receiving the treatment from female physicians is larger for female patients, has the potential to improve patient outcomes across the board.

https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/M23-3163

Most Materials Seem to Obey a 'Rule of Four'

The rule of four: anomalous distributions in the stoichiometries of inorganic compounds

An analysis of a vast database of compounds has revealed a curious repeating pattern in the way matter composes itself.

Of more than 80,000 electronic structures of experimental and predicted materials studied, a whopping 60 percent have a basic structural unit based on a multiple of four.

What's so strange about this is that the research team that discovered this pattern couldn't figure out why it happens. All we know at the moment is that it's real and observable. It just evades explanation for now.

Through an extensive investigation, in this work researchers highlight and analyze the anomalous abundance of inorganic compounds whose primitive unit cell contains a number of atoms that is a multiple of four, a property that they name rule of four.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41524-024-01248-z

Study suggests host response needs to be studied along with other bacteriophage research

A team of micro- and immunobiologists  has found evidence suggesting that future research teams planning to use bacteriophages to treat patients with multidrug-resistant bacterial infections need to also consider how cells in the host's body respond to such treatment.

In their paper published in the open-access journal PLOS Biology, the group describes experiments they conducted that involved studying the way epithelial cells in the lungs respond to bacteriophages.

Over the past decade, medical scientists have found that many of the antibiotics used to treat bacterial infections are becoming resistant, making them increasingly useless. Because of this, other scientists have been looking for new ways to treat such infections. One possible approach has involved the use of bacteriophages, which are viruses that parasitize bacteria by infecting and reproducing inside of them, leaving them unable to reproduce.

To date, most of the research involving use of bacteriophages to treat infections has taken place in Eastern Europe, where some are currently undergoing clinical trials. But such trials, the researchers involved in this new study note, do not take into consideration how cells in the body respond to such treatment. Instead, they are focused on determining which phages can be used to fight which types of bacteria, and how well they perform once employed.

The reason so little attention is paid to host cell interaction, they note, is that prior research has shown that phages can only replicate inside of the bacterial cells they invade; thus, there is little opportunity for them to elicit a response in human cells.

In this new study, the research team suggests such thinking is misguided because it fails to take into consideration the immune response in the host. To demonstrate their point, the team conducted a series of experiments involving exposing human epithelial cells from the lungs (which are the ones that become infected as part of lung diseases) to bacteriophages meant to eradicate the bacteria causing an infection.

They found that in many cases, the immune system responded by producing proinflammatory cytokines in the epithelial cells. They noted further that different phages elicited different responses, and there exists the possibility that the unique properties of some phages could be used to improve the results obtained from such therapies. They conclude by suggesting that future bacteriophage research involve inclusion of host cell response.

Paula F. Zamora et al, Lytic bacteriophages induce the secretion of antiviral and proinflammatory cytokines from human respiratory epithelial cells, PLOS Biology (2024). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002566

High-precision blood glucose level prediction achieved by few-molecule reservoir computing

A collaborative research team from NIMS and Tokyo University of Science has successfully developed an artificial intelligence (AI) device that executes brain-like information processing through few-molecule reservoir computing. This innovation utilizes the molecular vibrations of a select number of organic molecules.

By applying this device for the blood glucose level prediction in patients with diabetes, it has significantly outperformed existing AI devices in terms of prediction accuracy.

The work is published in the journal Science Advances.

Part 1

With the expansion of machine learning applications in various industries, there's an escalating demand for AI devices that are not only highly computational but also feature low power consumption and miniaturization.

Research has shifted towards physical reservoir computing, leveraging physical phenomena presented by materials and devices for neural information processing. One challenge that remains is the relatively large size of the existing materials and devices.

The team's research has pioneered the world's first implementation of physical reservoir computing that operates on the principle of surface-enhanced Raman scattering, harnessing the molecular vibrations of merely a few organic molecules. The information is inputted through ion gating, which modulates the adsorption of hydrogen ions onto organic molecules (p-mercaptobenzoic acid, pMBA) by applying voltage.

The changes in molecular vibrations of the pMBA molecules, which vary with hydrogen ion adsorption, serve the function of memory and nonlinear waveform transformation for calculation.

This process, using a sparse assembly of pMBA molecules, has learned approximately 20 hours of a diabetic patient's blood glucose level changes and managed to predict subsequent fluctuations over the next five minutes with an error reduction of about 50% compared to the highest accuracy achieved by similar devices to date.

This study indicates that a minimal quantity of organic molecules can effectively perform computations comparable to a computer. This technological breakthrough of conducting sophisticated information processing with minimal materials and in tiny spaces presents substantial practical benefits. It paves the way for the creation of low-power AI terminal devices that can be integrated with a variety of sensors, opening avenues for broad industrial use.

Daiki Nishioka et al, Few- and single-molecule reservoir computing experimentally demonstrated with surface-enhanced Raman scattering and ion gating, Science Advances (2024). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adk6438

Part 2

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'Zombie Deer' Disease: Zoonotic Transfer Suspected After Two Human Deaths

A medical case report suggests that a deadly prion disease may have made its way from deer into humans.
Two hunters have died after consuming venison from a population of deer known to be infected with chronic wasting disease – an incurable, fatal prion sometimes known as "zombie deer" disease not dissimilar to bovine spongiform encephalopathy, or mad cow disease.
A team of doctors at the University of Texas report a 72-year-old man died after presenting with rapid-onset confusion and aggression.

The man's friend, who was a member of the same hunting lodge, died at a later, unspecified date after presenting with similar symptoms, the doctors note. A post-mortem determined that this second patient had died of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, AKA prion disease.

Since prion disease is relatively rare in humans, the two cases could mean that chronic wasting disease – described by the Center for Disease Control as never having been reported in humans – has made the zoonotic leap from animals.
Prion diseases, known as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease or CJD in humans, are kind of terrifying. Prions are proteins that haven't folded properly, and therefore don't really function the way they should. The problem is that these misfolded proteins teach the proteins around them how to fold badly, too, resulting in a spread of dysfunctional tissue that cannot be halted or cured.
The spread of prions through brain tissue produces symptoms very similar to a kind of fast-tracked dementia, to which the patient eventually succumbs. Since CJD doesn't produce any kind of immune response, it's practically impossible to diagnose in a living patient.

Significant concerns have already been raised about chronic wasting disease. It infects animals such as deer, elk, and moose, and seems to be transmitted fairly easily between them; scientists think it is transmitted via bodily fluids such as blood or saliva, either through direct contact, or contamination in the environment.
It's not known for certain whether the two men described in the case report succumbed to chronic wasting disease, or whether their illness had another source. Prion disease may emerge spontaneously, for example, although that is, as far as we can tell, extremely rare.
The case report also doesn't mention from whence the two men hailed, but the disease can be found across the North American continent in wild populations, including at least 32 states in the US and across Canada. It can also be found among farmed deer.
Part 1

Given that zoonotic prion disease is absolutely possible, and that transmission to humans has been predicted for some time, the situation, the doctors say, warrants caution and attention.

Although causation remains unproven, this cluster emphasizes the need for further investigation into the potential risks of consuming CWD-infected deer and its implications for public health," they write.

"Clusters of sporadic CJD cases may occur in regions with CWD-confirmed deer populations, hinting at potential cross-species prion transmission. Surveillance and further research are essential to better understand this possible association."

https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000204407

Part 2

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Why do we move slower the older we get? New study delivers answers

It's one of the inescapable realities of aging: The older we get, the slower we tend to move.

A new study led by University of Colorado Boulder engineers helps explain why.

The research is one of the first studies to experimentally tease apart the competing reasons why people over age 65 might not be as quick on their feet as they used to be. The group reported that older adults may move slower, at least in part, because it costs them more energy than younger people—perhaps not too shocking for anyone who's woken up tired the morning after an active day.

Why we move the way we do, from eye movements to reaching, walking, and talking, is a window into aging and Parkinson's. Scientists are trying to understand the neural basis of that.

For the study, the group asked subjects aged 18 to 35 and 66 to 87 to complete a deceptively simple task: to reach for a target on a screen, a bit like playing a video game on a Nintendo Wii. By analyzing patterns of these reaches, the researchers discovered that older adults seemed to modify their motions under certain circumstances to conserve their limited supplies of energy.

All of us, whether young or old, are inherently driven to get the most reward out of our environment while minimizing the amount of effort to do so.

researchers have long known that older adults tend to be slower because their movements are less stable and accurate. But other factors could also play a role in this fundamental part of growing up.

According to one hypothesis, the muscles in older adults may work less efficiently, meaning that they burn more calories while completing the same tasks as younger adults—like running a marathon or getting up to grab a soda from the refrigerator.

Alternatively, aging might also alter the reward circuitry in the human brain. As people age, their bodies produce less dopamine, a brain chemical responsible for giving you a sense of satisfaction after a job well done. If you don't feel that reward as strongly, the thinking goes, you may be less likely to move to get it. People with Parkinson's disease experience an even sharper decline in dopamine production.

Part 1

In the study, the researchers asked more than 80 people to sit down and grab the handle of a robotic arm, which, in turn, operated the cursor on a computer screen. The subjects reached forward, moving the cursor toward a target. If they succeeded, they received a reward—not a big one, but still enough to make their brains happy.

Sometimes, the targets exploded, and they would get point rewards. It would also make a 'bing bing' sound.

That's when a contrast between the two groups of people began to emerge.

Both the 18 to 35-year-olds and 66 to 87-year-olds arrived at their targets sooner when they knew they would hear that bing bing—roughly 4% to 5% sooner over trials without the reward. But they also achieved that goal in different ways.

The younger adults, by and large, moved their arms faster toward the reward. The older adults, in contrast, mainly improved their reaction times, beginning their reaches about 17 milliseconds sooner on average.

When the team added an 8-pound weight to the robotic arm for the younger subjects, those differences vanished.

The brain seems to be able to detect very small changes in how much energy the body is using and adjusts our movements accordingly. Even when moving with just a few extra pounds, reacting quicker became the energetically cheaper option to get to the reward, so the young adults imitated the older adults and did just that.

The research seems to paint a clear picture. Both the younger and older adults didn't seem to have trouble perceiving rewards, even small ones. But their brains slowed down their movements under tiring circumstances.

The experiment can't completely rule out the brain's reward centers as a culprit behind why we slow down when we age. But if scientists can tease out where and how these changes emerge from the body, they may be able to develop treatments to reduce the toll of aging and disease.

Putting it all together, these results suggest that the effort costs of reaching seem to be determining what's slowing the movement of older adults. 

Erik M. Summerside et al, Slowing of Movements in Healthy Aging as a Rational Economic Response to an Elevated Effort Landscape, The Journal of Neuroscience (2024). DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1596-23.2024

Part 2

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The harm artificial sweeteners can cause

Artificial sweeteners are chemical compounds are up to 600 times sweeter than sugar with very few (if any) calories, and are cheap and easy for manufacturers to use.

Traditional artificial sweeteners, such as aspartame, sucralose and acesulfame potassium (acesulfame K) have been found in a wide range of foods and drinks for many years as a way to increase the sweet taste without adding significant calories or costs. However, in the last few years, there has been controversy in the field. Several studies have suggested potential health harms associated with consuming these sweeteners, ranging from gastrointestinal disease to dementia. Although none of these harms have been proved, it has paved the way for new sweeteners to be developed to try to avoid any possible health issues. These next-generation sweeteners are up to 13,000 times sweeter than sugar, have no calories and no aftertaste (a common complaint with traditional sweeteners). An example of this new type of sweetener is neotame. Neotame was developed as an alternative to aspartame with the aim of being a more stable and sweet version of the traditional sweetener. It is very stable at high temperatures, which means it is a good additive to use in baked goods. It is also used in soft drinks and chewing gum.

An artificial sweetener called neotame can cause significant harm to the gut, scientists found.It does this harm in two ways. One, by breaking down the layer of cells that line the intestine. And, two, by causing previously healthy gut bacteria to become diseased, resulting in them invading the gut wall.

The study, published in the journal Frontiers in Nutrition, is the first to show this double-hit negative effect of neotame on the gut, resulting in damage similar to that seen in inflammatory bowel disease and sepsis.

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2024.1366409/full

Study suggests that stevia is the most brain-compatible sugar substitute

Given the known risks of consuming high amounts of sugar, today many people are looking for alternative sweeteners that produce a similar taste without prompting significant weight gain and causing other health issues. While research suggests that the brain can tell the difference between different sweet substances, the neural processes underlying this ability to tell sweeteners apart remain poorly understood.

Researchers recently carried out a study aimed at better understanding what happens in the brain of mice when they are fed different types of sweeteners. Their findings, published in Neuroscience Research, suggest that the response of neurons to sucrose and stevia is similar, suggesting that stevia could be an equally pleasant but healthier sugar substitute.

Stevia is a sweet sugar substitute that is about 50 to 300 times sweeter than sugar. It is extracted from the leaves of Stevia rebaudiana, a plant native to areas of Paraguay and Brazil in the southern Amazon rainforest.The active compounds in stevia are steviol glycosides (mainly stevioside and rebaudioside). Stevia is heat-stable, pH-stable, and not fermentable. Humans cannot metabolize the glycosides in stevia, and therefore it has zero calories. Its taste has a slower onset and longer duration than that of sugar, and at high concentrations some of its extracts may have an aftertaste described as licorice-like or bitter. Stevia is used in sugar- and calorie-reduced food and beverage products as an alternative for variants with sugar.

Interestingly, the team's recordings revealed that compared to other sugar substitutes considered as part of this study, stevia induced activity in the PVT that more closely resembled that elicited by sugar intake. This suggests that stevia is the most "brain compatible" among most widely used sugar alternatives, most closely mirroring the perceived taste of sugar.

Shaolei Jiang et al, Neuronal activity in the anterior paraventricular nucleus of thalamus positively correlated with sweetener consumption in mice, Neuroscience Research (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2024.02.002

Research shows 'profound' link between dietary choices and brain health

A recent study published in Nature Mental Health shows that a healthy, balanced diet is linked to superior brain health, cognitive function and mental well-being. The study, involving researchers at the University of Warwick, sheds light on how our food preferences not only influence physical health but also significantly impact brain health.

The dietary choices of a large sample of 181,990 participants from the UK Biobank were analyzed against and a range of physical evaluations, including cognitive function, blood metabolic biomarkers, brain imaging, and genetics—unveiling new insights into the relationship between nutrition and overall well-being.

The food preferences of each participant were collected via an online questionnaire, which the team categorized into 10 groups (such as alcohol, fruits and meats). A type of AI called machine learning helped the researchers analyze the large dataset.

A balanced diet was associated with better mental health, superior cognitive functions and even higher amounts of gray matter in the brain—linked to intelligence—compared with those with a less varied diet.

The study also highlighted the need for gradual dietary modifications, particularly for individuals accustomed to highly palatable but nutritionally deficient foods. By slowly reducing sugar and fat intake over time, individuals may find themselves naturally gravitating towards healthier food choices.

Genetic factors may also contribute to the association between diet and brain health, the scientists think, showing how a combination of genetic predispositions and lifestyle choices shape well-being.

 Ruohan Zhang et al, Associations of dietary patterns with brain health from behavioral, neuroimaging, biochemical and genetic analyses, Nature Mental Health (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s44220-024-00226-0

Human activities have an intense impact on Earth's deep subsurface fluid flow

The impact of human activities—such as greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation—on Earth's surface have been well-studied. Now, hydrology researchers  have investigated how humans impact Earth's deep subsurface, a zone that lies hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the planet's surface.

They looked at how the rates of fluid production with oil and gas compare to natural background circulation of water and showed how humans have made a big impact on the circulation of fluids in the subsurface.

In the future, these human-induced fluid fluxes are projected to increase with strategies that are proposed as solutions for climate change, according the study. Such strategies include: geologic carbon sequestration, which is capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide in underground porous rocks; geothermal energy production, which involves circulating water through hot rocks for generating electricity; and lithium extraction from underground mineral-rich brine for powering electric vehicles.

Responsible management of the subsurface is central to any hope for a green transition, sustainable future and keeping warming below a few degrees.

With oil and natural gas production, there is always some amount of water, typically saline, that comes from the deep subsurface. The underground water is often millions of years old and acquires its salinity either from evaporation of ancient seawater or from reaction with rocks and minerals. For more efficient oil recovery, more water from near-surface sources is added to the salt water to make up for the amount of oil removed and to maintain reservoir pressures. The blended saline water then gets reinjected into the subsurface. This becomes a cycle of producing fluid and reinjecting it to the deep subsurface.

The same process happens in lithium extraction, geothermal energy production and geologic carbon sequestration, the operations of which involve leftover saline water from the underground that is reinjected.

Researchers showed that the fluid injection rates or recharge rates from those oil and gas activities is greater than what naturally occurs .

Part 1

Using existing data from various sources, including measurements of fluid movements related to oil and gas extraction and water injections for geothermal energy, the team found that the current fluid movement rates induced by human activities are higher compared to how fluids moved before human intervention.

As human activities like carbon capture and sequestration and lithium extraction ramp up, the researchers also predicted how these activities might be recorded in the geological record, which is the history of Earth as recorded in the rocks that make up its crust.

Human activities have the potential to alter not just the deep subsurface fluids but also the microbes that live down there.
As fluids move around, microbial environments may be altered by changes in water chemistry or by bringing new microbial communities from Earth's surface to the underground.

For example, with hydraulic fracturing, a technique that is used to break underground rocks with pressurized liquids for extracting oil and gas, a deep rock formation that previously didn't have any detectable number of microbes might have a sudden bloom of microbial activity.

There remain a lot of unknowns about Earth's deep subsurface and how it is impacted by human activities, and it's important to continue working on those questions, say the scientists.

Grant Ferguson et al, Acceleration of Deep Subsurface Fluid Fluxes in the Anthropocene, Earth's Future (2024). DOI: 10.1029/2024EF004496

Part 2

Researchers  find brown fat's 'off-switch'

Brown fat, also known as brown adipose tissue (BAT), is a type of fat in our bodies that's different from the white fat around our belly and thighs that we are more familiar with. Brown fat has a special job—it helps to burn calories from the foods that we eat into heat, which can be helpful, especially when we're exposed to cold temperatures like during winter swimming or cryotherapy.

For a long time, scientists thought that only small animals like mice and newborns had brown fat. But new research shows that a certain number of adults maintain their brown fat throughout life. Because brown fat is so good at burning calories, scientists are trying to find ways to activate it safely using drugs that boost its heat-producing abilities.

A new study  has found that brown fat has a previously unknown built-in mechanism that switches it off shortly after being activated. This limits its effectiveness as treatment against obesity. The team has now discovered a protein responsible for this switching-off process. It is called "AC3-AT."

Hande Topel et al, Cold-induced expression of a truncated Adenylyl Cyclase 3 acts as rheostat to brown fat function, Nature Metabolism (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s42255-024-01033-8

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Physicists overcome two key operating hurdles in fusion reactions

A team of physicists has devised a way to overcome two key hurdles standing in the way of using fusion as a general power source.

In their paper published in the journal Nature, the group describes how they devised a way to raise the density of the plasma in their reactor while also keeping it stable.

Scientists at various sites around the world have been working for several years to figure out how to use fusion reactions to create electricity for general use—thereby freeing the world from using coal and gas fired power plants that spew greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. But it has been a long and difficult road.

It was just in the past couple of years that researchers were able to show that a fusion reaction could be made to sustain itself, and that more power could be produced than was input into such a system.

The next two hurdles to overcome are increasing the density of the plasma in the reactor and then containing it for extended periods of time—long enough for it to be useful for producing electricity. In this new study, the research team has devised a way to do both in a tokamak chamber.

To contain the plasma as its density was increased, the team used additional magnets and bursts of deuterium where needed. They also allowed for higher densities at the core than near the edges, helping to ensure the plasma could not escape. They held it in that state for 2.2 seconds, long enough to prove that it could be done.

They also found that during that short time span, the average density in the reactor was 20% over the Greenwald limit—a theoretical barrier that had been predicted to mark the point at which adding pressure would escape the magnetic field holding the plasma in place.

They also found that the stability of the plasma was H_98y2 above 1, which means that the experiment was successful.

The research team acknowledges that their experiment was done in a very small reactor—one with a diameter of just 1.6 meters. For such an achievement to be considered fully successful, it will have to be done in a much larger reactor, such as the one currently under construction in France, which will have a diameter of 6.2 meters.

S. Ding et al, A high-density and high-confinement tokamak plasma regime for fusion energy, Nature (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07313-3

Many old books contain toxic chemicals

In our modern society, we rarely consider books to be dangerous items. However, certain books contain elements so hazardous that they require scrutiny before being placed on the shelves of public libraries, bookstores or even private homes.

The Poisonous Book Project, a collaborative research project between Winterthur Museum, Garden & Library and the University of Delaware, is dedicated to cataloging such books. Their concern is not with the content written on the pages, but with the physical components of the books themselves—specifically, the colors of the covers.
The project recently influenced the decision to remove two books from the French national library. The reason? Their vibrant green cloth covers raised suspicions of containing arsenic.

This concern is rooted in historical practices in bookbinding. During the 19th century, as books began to be mass produced, bookbinders transitioned from using expensive leather covers to more affordable cloth items. To attract readers, these cloth covers were often dyed in bright, eye-catching colours.
One popular pigment was Scheele's green, named after Carl Wilhelm Scheele, a German-Swedish chemist who in 1775 discovered that a vivid green pigment could be produced from copper and arsenic. This dye was not only cheap to make, it was also more vibrant than the copper carbonate greens that had been used for over a century.
Paris green, 's much more durable. It was quickly adopted for use in various items, including book covers, clothing, candles and wallpaper.
These pigments, however, had a significant drawback: they degraded easily, releasing poisonous and carcinogenic arsenic. The frequent reports of green candles poisoning children at Christmas parties, factory workers tasked with applying paint to ornaments convulsing and vomiting green water and warnings of poisonous ball dresses raised serious concerns about the safety of these green dyes.
Part 1

The harmful effects of these pigments have even been implicated in Napoleon's death from stomach cancer. Napoleon was particularly keen on the new green colors, so much so that he ordered his dwelling on St Helena, where he was exiled, be painted in his favorite color.

The theory that the arsenic in the walls contributed to his death is supported by the high levels of arsenic detected in samples of his hair. Despite the clear link between the green pigments and health issues, toxic wallpapers continued to be produced until the late 19th century.
Green isn't the only color to worry about, however. Red is also of concern. The brilliant red pigment vermilion was formed from the mineral cinnabar, also known as mercury sulfide. This was a popular source of red paint dating back thousands of years. There is even evidence that neolithic artists suffered from mercury poisoning. Vermilion red sometimes appears on the marbled patterns on the inside of book covers.

Yellow has also caught the eye of the poisonous book project. In this case, the culprit is lead chromate. The bright yellow of lead chromate was a favorite with painters, not least Vincent van Gogh, who used it extensively in his most famous series of paintings: Sunflowers. For the Victorian-era bookbinders, lead chromate allowed them to create a range of colors from greens (achieved by mixing chrome yellow with Prussian blue) to yellows, oranges and browns.

Both lead and chromium are toxic. But yellow books are less of a concern than green and red. Lead chromate is not particularly soluble, making it difficult to absorb. It is, in fact, still a widely used pigment.
Part 2

So what should you do if you come across a green cloth book from the 19th century? First, don't be overly concerned. You would probably have to eat the entire book before you'd suffer from severe arsenic poisoning. However, casual exposure to copper acetoarsenite, the compound in the green pigment, can irritate the eyes, nose and throat.

It is more of a concern for folks who may regularly handle these books where frequent contact could result in more serious symptoms. Therefore, anyone who suspects they might be handling a Victorian-era book with an emerald green binding is advised to wear gloves and avoid touching their face. Then clean all surfaces afterwards.

To aid with the identification of these potentially hazardous books, the Poisonous Book Project has incorporated crowd-sourced data into their research. The researchers now distribute bookmarks that feature safety warnings and showcase various shades of emerald green to aid their identification. As a result, they have now identified over 238 arsenic editions from across the globe.

https://theconversation.com/many-old-books-contain-toxic-chemicals-...

Part 3

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First fetus-to-fetus transplant demonstrated in rats

Scientists show that there is indeed an 'entropy' of quantum entanglement

Researchers have shown, through probabilistic calculations, that there is indeed, as had been hypothesized, a rule of entropy for the phenomenon of quantum entanglement.

This finding could help drive a better understanding of quantum entanglement, which is a key resource that underlies much of the power of future quantum computers. Little is currently understood about the optimal ways to make effective use of it, despite it being the focus of research in quantum information science for decades.

The second law of thermodynamics, which says that a system can never move to a state with lower entropy, or order, is one of the most fundamental laws of nature, and lies at the very heart of physics. It is what creates the "arrow of time," and tells us the remarkable fact that the dynamics of general physical systems, even extremely complex ones such as gases or black holes, are encapsulated by a single function, its entropy.

There is a complication, however. The principle of entropy is known to apply to all classical systems. Then what about quantum world?

We are now going through a quantum revolution, and it becomes crucially important to understand how we can extract and transform the expensive and fragile quantum resources. In particular, quantum entanglement, which allows for significant advantages in communication, computation, and cryptography, is crucial, but due to its extremely complex structure, efficiently manipulating it and even understanding its basic properties is typically much more challenging than in the case of thermodynamics. Part 1

The difficulty lies in the fact that such a "second law" for quantum entanglement would require us to show that entanglement transformations can be made reversible, just like work and heat can be interconverted in thermodynamics.

It is known that reversibility of entanglement is much more difficult to ensure than the reversibility of thermodynamic transformations, and all previous attempts at establishing any form of a reversible theory of entanglement have failed. It was even suspected that entanglement might actually be irreversible, making the quest an impossible one.
In their new work, published in Nature Communications, the authors solve this long-standing conjecture by using probabilistic entanglement transformations, which are only guaranteed to be successful some of the time, but which, in return, provide an increased power in converting quantum systems.

Under such processes, the authors show that it is indeed possible to establish a reversible framework for entanglement manipulation, thus identifying a setting in which a unique entropy of entanglement emerges and all entanglement transformations are governed by a single quantity. The methods they used could be applied more broadly, showing similar reversibility properties also for more general quantum resources.
findings mark significant progress in understanding the basic properties of entanglement, revealing fundamental connections between entanglement and thermodynamics, and crucially, providing a major simplification in the understanding of entanglement conversion processes.
This not only has immediate and direct applications in the foundations of quantum theory, but it will also help with understanding the ultimate limitations on our ability to efficiently manipulate entanglement in practice.

Bartosz Regula et al, Reversibility of quantum resources through probabilistic protocols, Nature Communications (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47243-2

Part 2

Patients with rheumatoid arthritis have unique and complex autoantibody patterns, study reveals

Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) all have a unique and diverse set of antibodies that are involved in the development of the disease. Researchers unveiled the complexity of these antibodies using powerful lab tools capable of analyzing our immune system at molecular levels. Their discovery suggests that current assumptions about the origin of RA are too simple. Their findings may point towards improved diagnostics.

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the joints, causing pain, stiffness, and swelling. It arises when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues, leading to inflammation in the joints and potentially other organs.

The exact cause of RA remains unknown, but a crucial role is played by antibodies, special proteins made by the immune system to help fight off infections. They recognize and attack specific targets, like viruses or bacteria. Some antibodies are wrongly produced, causing them to attack our own body. Normally, our body's immune system is equipped with a 'filter' that cleans up these so-called autoantibodies. Researchers think that this mechanism is malfunctioning in RA patients.

The extend to which this filter is malfunctioning, now appears to be much greater than expected. Research  published in Nature Communications reveals that it's not just a handful of different RA-associated autoantibodies that evade the filter. On the contrary, the researchers found an extremely broad variety of these antibodies.

The team used novel mass spectrometry tools that profile specific antibodies typically seen in the blood of RA patients, which are called anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPAs). They discovered that each RA patient possesses a unique and diverse set of ACPAs.

Part 1

Their findings challenge previous assumptions about the backgrounds of RA, that overlooked the antibodies' diversity and complexity. This shows that RA is not just a disease occurring due to small errors, but a big structural problem in the immune system. 

The study also revealed that these ACPAs are extensively modified with sugar molecules, known as Fab glycans. Intriguingly, some antibodies had multiple sugar molecules attached. This is much more then researchers normally observe in antibody profiles.

Having extra glycans aboard, may help the ACPA antibodies pass the filter of the immune system. The immune system uses several very strict checks during antibody production, to make sure all antibodies are correct. Wrongly produced antibodies are then detected and removed. Scientists suspect that glycans could help ACPAs trick the control system, allowing ACPAs to pass through the filter and form the onset of RA.
Current efforts to develop treatments for RA are mainly geared towards eliminating autoantibodies directly. This strategy may not be effective, say the researchers. When you realize that there is such an extreme diversity in RA-related autoantibodies, it seems virtually impossible to eliminate them. A better approach may be to intervene earlier in the disease process, by targeting the malfunctioning filtering mechanism that allows autoantibodies to pass through.

Understanding these unique proteins is important, as it could ultimately also help doctors diagnose RA better. Even though RA remains an incurable disease, with an earlier diagnosis you can take better measures to control its progression.

Eva Maria Stork et al, Antigen-specific Fab profiling achieves molecular-resolution analysis of human autoantibody repertoires in rheumatoid arthritis, Nature Communications (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47337-x

Part 2

Brain imaging study reveals connections critical to human consciousness

In a paper titled, "Multimodal MRI reveals brainstem connections that sustain wakefulness in human consciousness," published in Science Translational Medicine, a group of researchers at Massachusetts General Hospital and Boston Children's Hospital, created a connectivity map of a brain network that they propose is critical to human consciousness.

The study involved high-resolution scans that enabled the researchers to visualize brain connections at submillimeter spatial resolution. This technical advance allowed them to identify previously unseen pathways connecting the brainstem, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal forebrain, and cerebral cortex.
Together, these pathways form a "default ascending arousal network" that sustains wakefulness in the resting, conscious human brain. The concept of a "default" network is based on the idea that specific networks within the brain are most functionally active when the brain is in a resting state of consciousness. In contrast, other networks are more active when the brain is performing goal-directed tasks.

To investigate the functional properties of this default brain network, the researchers analyzed 7 Tesla resting-state functional MRI data from the Human Connectome Project. These analyses revealed functional connections between the subcortical default ascending arousal network and the cortical default mode network that contributes to self-awareness in the resting, conscious brain.

Part 1

The complementary structural and functional connectivity maps provide a neuroanatomic basis for integrating arousal and awareness in human consciousness. The researchers released the MRI data, brain mapping methods, and a new Harvard Ascending Arousal Network Atlas, to support future efforts to map the connectivity of human consciousness.

This connectivity results suggest that stimulation of the ventral tegmental area's dopaminergic pathways has the potential to help patients recover from coma because this hub node is connected to many regions of the brain that are critical to consciousness.
The human brain connections that they identified can be used as a roadmap to better understand a broad range of neurological disorders associated with altered consciousness, from coma, to seizures, to sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

The researchers are currently conducting clinical trials to stimulate the default ascending arousal network in patients with coma after traumatic brain injury, with the goal of reactivating the network and restoring consciousness.

 Brian Edlow et al, Multimodal MRI reveals brainstem connections that sustain wakefulness in human consciousness, Science Translational Medicine (2024). DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adj4303. www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.adj4303

Part 2

Scientists identify new brain circuit in mice that controls body's inflammatory reactions

The brain can direct the immune system to an unexpected degree, capable of detecting, ramping up and tamping down inflammation, shows a new study in mice by  researchers.

The brain is the center of our thoughts, emotions, memories and feelings. Thanks to great advances in circuit tracking and single-cell technology, we now know the brain does far more than that. It is monitoring the function of every system in the body.

Future research could identify drugs that can target this newfound brain circuit to help treat a vast range of disorders and diseases in which the immune system goes haywire. This new discovery could provide an exciting therapeutic venue to control inflammation and immunity.

Recent work by scientists is revealing the importance of the body-brain axis, a vital pathway that conveys data between the organs and the brain. For example, they discovered that sugar and fat entering the gut use the body-brain axis to drive the craving and strong appetite for sugary and fatty foods.

They  found all these ways in which the body is informing the brain about the body's current state. 

Part 1

The scientists looked for connections the brain might have with inflammation and innate immunity, the defense system shared by all animals and the most ancient component of the immune system. Whereas the adaptive immune system remembers previous encounters with intruders to help it resist them if they invade again, the innate immune system attacks anything with common traits of germs. The relative simplicity of innate immunity lets it respond to new insults more quickly than adaptive immunity.

Prior studies in humans revealed that electrically stimulating the vagus nerve—a bundle of thousands of nerve fibers linking the brain and the body's internal organs—could reduce the response linked to a specific inflammatory molecule.
However, much remained unknown about the nature of this body-brain system: for instance, the generality of the brain's modulation of immunity and the inflammatory response, the selective lines of communication between the body and the brain, the logic of the underlying neural circuit, and the identity of the vagal and brain components that monitor and regulate inflammation.
Researchers turned to a bacterial compound that sets off innate immune responses. The scientists found that giving this molecule to mice activated the caudal nucleus of the solitary tract, or cNST, which is tucked inside the brainstem. The cNST plays a major role in the body-brain axis and is the primary target of the vagus nerve.
The scientists showed that chemically suppressing the cNST resulted in an out-of-control inflammatory response to the immune insult: levels of pro-inflammatory molecules released by the immune system were more than three times higher than usual, and levels of anti-inflammatory immune compounds were roughly three times lower than normal.

In contrast, artificially activating the cNST reduced pro-inflammatory molecule levels by nearly 70% and increased anti-inflammatory chemical levels almost tenfold.

Similar to a thermostat, this newfound brain circuit helps increase or decrease inflammatory responses to keep the body responding in a healthy manner.

A body–brain circuit that regulates body inflammatory responses, Nature (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07469-y

Part 2

**

The journey of inhaled plastic particle pollution

With recent studies having established the presence of nano and microplastic particles in the respiratory systems of both human and bird populations, a new study has modeled what happens when people breathe in different kinds of plastic particles and where they end up.

Researchers used computational fluid-particle dynamics (CFPD) to study the transfer and deposition of nano and microplastic particles of different sizes and shapes depending on the rate of breathing.

The results of the modeling, published in the journal Environmental Advances, have pinpointed hotspots in the human respiratory system where plastic particles can accumulate, from the nasal cavity and larynx and into the lungs. The paper based on these results is titled, "Transport and deposition of microplastics and nanoplastics in the human respiratory tract."

Evidence 's mounting on the significant impact of nano and microplastics on respiratory health and the UTS study would provide essential insights for the development of targeted strategies to mitigate potential risks and ensure effective health interventions.
Experimental evidence has strongly suggested that these plastic particles amplify human susceptibility to a spectrum of lung disorders, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, fibrosis, dyspnea (shortness of breath), asthma, and the formation of what are called frosted glass nodules.
Part 1

Plastic particle air pollution is now pervasive and inhalation ranks as the second most likely pathway for human exposure.
The primary types are intentionally manufactured, including a wide array of cosmetics and personal care products such as toothpaste.

The secondary ones are fragments derived from the degradation of larger plastic products, such as water bottles, food containers and clothes.
Extensive investigations have identified synthetic textiles as a principal source of indoor airborne plastic particles, while the outdoor environment presents a multitude of sources encompassing contaminated aerosols from the ocean to particles originating from wastewater treatment.
Researchers' modelling found that breathing rate along with particle size and shape determined where in the respiratory system plastic particles would be deposited.

Faster breathing rates led to heightened deposition in the upper respiratory tract, particularly for larger microplastics, whereas slower breathing facilitated deeper penetration and deposition of smaller nanoplastic particles.
Particle shape was another factor, with non-spherical microplastic particles showing a propensity for deeper lung penetration compared to spherical microplastics and nanoplastics, potentially leading to different health outcomes.

These findings highlight the imperative consideration of breathing rates and particle sizes in health risk assessments associated with respiratory exposure to nano and microplastic particles.

Xinlei Huang et al, Transport and deposition of microplastics and nanoplastics in the human respiratory tract, Environmental Advances (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.envadv.2024.100525

Part 2

Tire toxicity faces fresh scrutiny after fish fatalities

For decades, concerns about automobile pollution have focused on what comes out of the tailpipe. Now, researchers and regulators say, we need to pay more attention to toxic emissions from tires as vehicles roll down the road.

At the top of the list of worries is a chemical called 6PPD, which is added to rubber tires to help them last longer. When tires wear on pavement, 6PPD is released. It reacts with ozone to become a different chemical, 6PPD-q, which can be extremely toxic—so much so that it has been linked to repeated fish kills in the US.

The trouble with tires doesn't stop there. Tires are made primarily of natural rubber and synthetic rubber, but they contain hundreds of other ingredients, often including steel and heavy metals such as copper, lead, cadmium, and zinc.

As car tires wear, the rubber disappears in particles, both bits that can be seen with the naked eye and microparticles. Testing by a British company, Emissions Analytics, found that a car's tires emit 1 trillion ultrafine particles per kilometer driven—from 5 to 9 pounds of rubber per internal combustion car per year.

And what's in those particles is a mystery, because tire ingredients are proprietary. You've got a chemical cocktail in these tires that no one really understands and is kept highly confidential by the tire manufacturers.

Regulators have only begun to address the toxic tire problem, though there has been some action on 6PPD.

Native American tribes have petitioned the Environmental Protection Agency to prohibit the chemical. The EPA said it is considering new rules governing the chemical. "We could not sit idle while 6PPD kills the fish that sustain us", they say.

But, tragically,  today there is no alternative to 6PPD.

One outstanding research question is whether 6PPD-q affects people, and what health problems, if any, it could cause. A study published in Environmental Science & Technology Letters found high levels of the chemical in urine samples from a region of South China, with levels highest in pregnant women.

The discovery of 6PPD-q, Molden said, has sparked fresh interest in the health and environmental impacts of tires.

Source: Environmental Science & Technology Letters

**More than half of cats on farm died after drinking milk from cows infected with bird flu**
In yet another sign that bird flu is spreading widely among mammals, a new report finds more than half of cats at the first Texas dairy farm to have cows test positive for bird flu this spring died after drinking raw milk.

Published this week in the Emerging Infectious Diseases journal, the report details the early stages of the investigation into the spread of bird flu among the country's dairy farms.

Cats at the Texas farm had been fed raw milk from cows that turned out to be infected with avian influenza, also known as H5N1. A day after the farm noticed cows were getting sick, the cats started getting sick. In the end, more than half of the cats perished.
"The cats were found dead with no apparent signs of injury and were from a resident population of [approximately] 24 domestic cats that had been fed milk from sick cows," the scientists wrote in their report.

Tests of the samples collected from the brains and lungs of dead cats yielded results suggesting "high amounts of virus," and autopsies revealed "microscopic lesions consistent with severe systemic virus infection," in the eyes and brain, they said.
And some human beings too got infected with this bird flu virus.

In late March 2024, a human case of influenza A(H5N1) virus infection was identified after exposure to dairy cattle presumably infected with bird flu. Some bird flu infections of people have been identified in which the source of infection was unknown.
Source: The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avianflu/avian-in-humans.htm

Enzymes Discovered in Gut Bacteria Can Change a Donor's Blood Groups

When a life hangs in the balance, blood transfusions can help sustain a patient – but only if the donor's blood type is a match.
A new discovery by researchers from Denmark and Sweden could help in those emergency situations, while also easing global shortages in blood supplies.
The team identified a mixture of enzymes made by a species of bacteria found in our guts that can, in lab studies, transform red blood cells into the universal type O with "remarkably high efficiencies" – improving on an idea hatched 40 years ago.

Like virtually all cells in the human body, red blood cells are covered in a fuzz of unique sugary structures. These vary from person to person, with some sporting type A structures and others type B. Some have both A and B, and others have neither, which is designated O.

Immune systems that have never seen types A or B will attack and destroy these cells on sight if they receive them in a transfusion, whereas type O blood is far more widely accepted for most recipients.

Because of this versatility, type O blood stocks are often used up, especially in medical emergencies where doctors must act quickly without knowing a patient's blood type.
Converting red blood cells into the universal type O is not a new idea. The technique was pioneered back in 1982, when scientists discovered an enzyme extracted from coffee beans that could strip type B cells of their surface sugars.

But that enzyme reaction was very inefficient, making large-scale use impractical, and despite early promise in clinical trials, safety concerns were raised. For unknown reasons, donor blood was sometimes still incompatible in recipients despite donor cells being stripped of nearly all their antigens.

So scientists went back to the drawing board, discovering other enzymes in collections of gut bacteria as recently as 2019.
Part 1

What's tricky is that there are now, as of 2022, more than 40 blood group systems beyond the ABO system and rhesus factor most are familiar with.

Even within the A and B blood groups, there are subtypes, with varying lengths and densities of the signature molecules protruding from the red cells' membranes.
Scientists recently reported the discovery of remarkably efficient enzymes, not only against A and B antigens but also against their extensions.

published paper

Part 2

Based on previous work by other teams, the researchers selected a few candidate enzymes made by the gut bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila and treated red blood cells – from multiple donors and various A and B subtypes – with them.

Importantly, for potential clinical use, the enzymes were incubated with high concentrations of red blood cells, at room temperature and for only 30 minutes – improving on the longer processing and less efficient conditions of previous candidates.

"These mild conditions without additives (for example, dextran) together with excellent enzyme efficacies are important feasibility parameters in clinical applications.
Crucially, the chosen enzymes also removed all four known extensions of group A and B antigens from red blood cells, in addition to the shorter, canonical A and B antigens of other blood subtypes.

Removing the long, sugary extensions reduced the incompatibility of treated B-type cells with plasma samples to less than 9 percent, and made reactions less severe where they did happen.

More work is required to understand why a small fraction of apparently sugarless red blood cells still cross-react with group O plasmas, and to improve the conversion of group A blood cells.

However, in finding enzymes that remove a greater variety of A and B antigens, the researchers say their study uncovers "a missing link" in the production of universal blood for transfusion and potentially organs for transplantation.

In 2022, researchers used a similar strategy (with different enzymes) to convert donated lungs from group A blood type to the universal type O under lab conditions. This new work might improve those efforts enough to satisfy the safety standards required for human transplant trials.
Lab-grown red blood cells are also in human trials to test whether they last longer than donated blood. If so, that could reduce the demand on blood supplies and also help patients requiring repeat transfusions avoid complications.

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-024-01663-4

Part 3

**

Researchers develop near-chromosome-level genome for the Mojave poppy bee

Scientists have developed a near chromosome-level genome for the Mojave poppy bee, a specialist pollinator of conservation concern, according to a recent paper published in the Journal of Heredity.

Putting together the Mojave poppy bee genome is part of the Beenome100 project, a first-of-its-kind effort to create a library of high-quality, highly detailed genome maps of 100 or more diverse bee species.

The expectation is that these genomes will help researchers answer the big questions about bees, such as what genetic differences make a bee species more vulnerable to climate change or whether a bee species is likely to be more susceptible to a pesticide.

The Mojave poppy bee and Las Vegas bearpoppy are also being considered for listing under the Endangered Species Act. Both species will be evaluated for potential declining populations and vulnerability to extinction due to climate change and to habitat loss from urban development and mining in their native region.

Researchers assembled the genome or genetic map that will help further to understand the Mojave poppy bee's biological traits.

The genome, with additional genetic sampling of individuals, will also potentially give us insights into the genetic basis for host-plant specialization, susceptibility to pesticides, and susceptibility to drought and climate tolerance.

Rena M Schweizer et al, Reference genome for the Mojave poppy bee (Perdita meconis), a specialist pollinator of conservation concern, Journal of Heredity (2023). DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esad076

Male chicks play more than females!

Play is widespread, but far from ubiquitous, across the animal kingdom. Especially common in mammals, play is also known to occur in taxa as diverse as birds, fish, octopuses, and even insects. But what is its function, given that natural selection never selects fun for its own sake? One prominent hypothesis is that play is beneficial to individuals because it allows them to practice skills needed later in life.

Now, a study in Frontiers in Ethology has shown that male baby chickens play far more than females. This result is of interest given that domestic chickens are directly descended from a species—red jungle fowl—with a pronounced difference between the sexes in morphology, coloration, and behaviour.

This difference is mainly because males engage more in social and object play.

The researchers distinguished 12 distinct play behaviors. Examples of locomotor play were frolicking and wing flapping. Object play included chasing an object or pecking at it or exchanging it with another chick. Social play included sparring, jumping, and sparring stand-offs.

Object play was more frequently seen than social play, while locomotor play was least common. Both females and males showed every type of playful behavior. However, the frequency of play differed between them: male chicks played more overall than females. This was due to males engaging more often in object and social play, while there was no difference between the sexes in the frequency of locomotor play.

The researcher concluded that these sex differences in chicks in the frequency of play can be explained by the high degree of sexual dimorphism of adult junglefowl. This means that male chicks would benefit more from practicing various skills related to physical ability and social tactics.

The present study indicates that a possible function is to prepare animals for specific challenges they may encounter later in life. In a species like the chicken, where only males compete for territories, it makes sense that they engage in more social play as young.

Rebecca Oscarsson et al, Male chicks play more than females—sex differences in chicken play ontogeny, Frontiers in Ethology (2024). DOI: 10.3389/fetho.2024.1392378. www.frontiersin.org/articles/1 … ho.2024.1392378/full

Weak magnetic field may have supported diversification of life on Earth

An unusual reduction in the strength of Earth's magnetic field between 591 and 565 million years ago coincided with a significant increase in the oxygen levels in the atmosphere and oceans, according to a paper published in Communications Earth & Environment. The authors propose that the weakening of the magnetic field may have led to the increase in oxygen, which is  thought to have supported the evolution of some of the earliest complex organisms.

Between 600 and 540 million years ago, life on Earth consisted of soft-bodied organisms known as the Ediacaran fauna, the earliest known complex multicellular animals. The fossil record shows that these organisms significantly diversified in complexity and type between 575 and 565 million years ago. Previous research has suggested that this diversification is linked to a significant increase in atmospheric and oceanic oxygen levels that occurred over the same period. However, it is not yet clear why this increase in oxygen occurred.

Researchers analyzed the magnetic properties of 21 plagioclase crystals, a common mineral in Earth's crust, which were extracted from a 591-million-year-old rock formation in Brazil. Plagioclase crystals contain tiny magnetic minerals that preserve the intensity of the Earth's magnetic field at the time they are formed.
Analysis of the crystals showed that at their point of formation, Earth's magnetic field was the weakest ever recorded—some 30 times weaker than both the current magnetic field intensity, and that measured from similar crystals formed approximately 2,000 million years ago.
The authors combined their results with previous measurements to establish that the Earth's magnetic field was at this weak level for at least 26 million years, from 591 to 565 million years ago. This overlaps with the rise in oxygen, which occurred between 575 and 565 million years ago.

Part 1

The authors propose that the weakened magnetic field may have allowed more hydrogen to escape to space, resulting in a greater percentage of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere and oceans, which may in turn have supported the diversification in the types and complexity of organisms.

John Tarduno, Near-collapse of the geomagnetic field may have contributed to atmospheric oxygenation and animal radiation in the Ediacaran Period, Communications Earth & Environment (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s43247-024-01360-4. www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01360-4

Part 2

Testing for residual cancer cells before blood cell transplant therapy is important and practical, new study finds

Patients in remission after battling a high-risk blood cancer are likely to have better outcomes if no trace of the cancer is detectable before the patients receive donor blood cells.

The finding appearing in JAMA Oncology emphasizes the importance and practicality of testing for measurable residual disease (MRD)—a condition that refers to evidence of lingering cancer cells in the body after people receive apparently successful chemotherapy treatment in adults with acute myeloid leukemia.

The good news is this testing is doable.  You don't need to be at a specialized center with customized technology and high levels of expertise—testing can be done using commercially available kits potentially at any major modern hospital lab. It is now a matter of implementation.

In a study of 537 patients with AML treated throughout the United States, scientists used a method called targeted ultra-deep DNA sequencing to see if they could find specific, leftover cancer-related gene mutations in the blood of patients who were in remission, but still awaiting a bone marrow transplant from donors to restore their healthy blood supply.
The scientists were looking at DNA in blood for mutations in the FLT3 gene, which is among the most common seen in patients with AML. They found that if as little as 1 in 10,000 molecules of DNA tested contained a mutation, it corresponded with a higher risk of the cancer returning, and lower chances of survival with current standard treatments.

Measurable Residual FLT3-ITD before Allogeneic Transplant for Acute Myeloid Leukemia, JAMA Oncology (2024). DOI: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2024.0985

The brain structure that produces norepinephrine also helps control visual attention

The locus coeruleus (LC) is a small region of the brainstem that produces norepinephrine, a chemical with powerful effects on arousal and wakefulness which plays an important role in the body's response to stress or panic. Now, research shows it plays a specific role in visual sensory processing as well.

In a study, titled "Locus coeruleus norepinephrine selectively controls visual attention" and published in Neuron, neuroscientists artificially increased neuronal activity in the LC by briefly shining light on genetically modified neurons. They saw that this manipulation selectively enhanced performance in non-human primates performing a visual attention task, underscoring the crucial role that attention plays in sensory perception.

Researchers now have found a brain structure that has strong signals related to whether the subjects are paying attention to a stimulus or not, and they see big differences in how its neurons respond depending on where that attention is directed.

Previous research has shown that LC activation, coupled with its ensuing norepinephrine production, might improve performance on tasks that require attention to discern between visual stimuli.

Distinguishing the effects of attention from other factors, like decision-making or motor movements, is crucial. 

 Those processes take place in other parts of the brain, and can contribute to performance independently. Understanding how a relatively small brain structure like the LC impacts such an important function as attention is also one step toward solving the overall puzzle of the brain.

Locus coeruleus norepinephrine contributes to visual spatial attention by selectively enhancing perceptual sensitivity, Neuron (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.04.001. www.cell.com/neuron/fulltext/S0896-6273(24)00239-3

**

First report of wound treatment by a wild animal using a pain-relieving plant

Even though there is evidence of certain self-medication behaviours in animals, so far it has never been known that animals treat their wounds with healing plants.

Now biologists have observed this in a male Sumatran orangutan who sustained a facial wound. He ate and repeatedly applied sap from a climbing plant with anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties commonly used in traditional medicine. He also covered the entire wound with the green plant mesh. Thus, medical wound treatment may have arisen in a common ancestor shared by humans and orangutans.

While sick and avoidance behavior can be regularly observed in non-human animals, self-medication in the form of ingestion of specific plant parts is widespread in animals but exhibited at low frequencies. The closest relatives to humans, the great apes, are known to ingest specific plants to treat parasite infection and to rub plant material on their skin to treat sore muscles.

Recently a chimpanzee group in Gabon was observed applying insects to wounds. However, the efficiency of this behavior is still unknown. Wound treatment with a biologically active substance has so far not been documented.

In a study published in Scientific Reports, cognitive and evolutionary biologists from  report evidence of active wound treatment with a healing plant in a wild male Sumatran orangutan.

Part 1

The study  took place at the Suaq Balimbing research site in Indonesia, which is a protected rainforest area home to approximately 150 critically endangered Sumatran orangutans.

During daily observations of the orangutans, the biologists noticed that a male named Rakus had sustained a facial wound, most likely during a fight with a neighbouring male.

Three days after the injury, Rakus selectively ripped off leaves of a liana with the common name Akar Kuning (Fibraurea tinctoria), chewed on them, and then repeatedly applied the resulting juice precisely onto the facial wound for several minutes. As a last step, he fully covered the wound with the chewed leaves.

This and related liana species that can be found in tropical forests of Southeast Asia are known for their analgesic and antipyretic effects and are used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases, such as malaria. Analyses of plant chemical compounds show the presence of furanoditerpenoids and protoberberine alkaloids, which are known to have antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal, antioxidant, and other biological activities of relevance to wound healing.

Observations over the following days did not show any signs of the wound becoming infected and after five days the wound was already closed.

Interestingly, Rakus also rested more than usual when being wounded. Sleep positively affects wound healing as growth hormone release, protein synthesis and cell division are increased during sleep. 

Like all self-medication behavior in non-human animals, the case reported in this study raises questions about how intentional these behaviors are and how they emerge.

The behavior of Rakus appeared to be intentional as he selectively treated his facial wound on his right flange, and no other body parts, with the plant juice. The behavior was also repeated several times, not only with the plant juice but also later with more solid plant material until the wound was fully covered. The entire process took a considerable amount of time.

It is possible, that wound treatment with Fibraurea tinctoria by the orangutans at Suaq emerges through individual innovation.

Orangutans at the site rarely eat the plant. However, individuals may accidentally touch their wounds while feeding on this plant and thus unintentionally apply the plant's juice to their wounds. As Fibraurea tinctoria has potent analgesic effects, individuals may feel an immediate pain release, causing them to repeat the behaviour several times.

Since the behaviour has not been observed before, it may be that wound treatment with Fibraurea tinctoria has so far been absent in the behavioural repertoire of the Suaq orangutan population. Like all adult males in the area, Rakus was not born in Suaq, and his origin is unknown.

This possibly innovative behavior presents the first report of active wound management with a biological active substance in a great ape species and provides new insights into the existence of self-medication in our closest relatives and in the evolutionary origins of wound medication more broadly.

Isabelle Laumer, Active self-treatment of a facial wound with a biologically active plant by a male Sumatran orangutan, Scientific Reports (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58988-7. www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-58988-7

Part 2

Nano-drugs hitching a ride on bacteria could help treat pancreatic cancer

Many pancreatic tumors are like malignant fortresses, surrounded by a dense matrix of collagen and other tissue that shields them from immune cells and immunotherapies that have been effective in treating other cancers. Employing bacteria to infiltrate that cancerous fortification and deliver these drugs could aid treatment for pancreatic cancer, according to newly published findings from a team of researchers.

The paper is published in the journal Med.

Tumor collagen is a tough barrier

Pancreatic cancer is well known for its deadliness and has among the lowest five-year survival rates among common cancers. While there are several drivers behind the disease's dismal prognosis, one that's the focus of this study is the matrix surrounding many pancreatic tumors, which acts as an effective barrier against treatment.

The barrier is a collection of collagen, connective tissue, proteins that facilitate fibrosis and other cells. Recent studies have highlighted the role of this barrier in counteracting treatment attempts with immunotherapies—treatments that work by spurring on or tamping down the patient's immune system—such as immune checkpoint inhibitors. Analyzing patient tumour samples, the research team found genetic evidence that a specific type of collagen, called oncogenic collagen, is indeed a barrier to immunotherapy-based treatments.

That really dense extracellular matrix, made up of immunosuppressive cells, collagens and other cells is a critical problem if we want to use immunotherapies against these pancreatic cancers.

So researcher s  applied a bacterium that could both penetrate through the tough collagen barrier and deliver immunotherapeutic "nano-drugs."

The team chose a strain of the bacterium Escherichia coli with a track record of safe use in humans and known affinity for low-oxygen environments such as tumors to serve as a drug delivery vehicle. They engineered "protein cages" containing a pair of drugs—one breaks down collagen and the other is an anticancer immune checkpoint inhibitor—and attached them to the E. coli.

E. coli has great motility, meaning it can move by itself, and it actively targets hypoxic environments like tumors. And the researchers found that it was able to penetrate deep into the tumor site to deliver drugs.

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The team tested its E. coli-based delivery system in mouse models of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, or PDAC, the most common and lethal form of pancreatic cancer, which was the focus of the study.

Mice treated with the therapeutic-laden bacteria experienced delayed tumour growth and significantly longer survival compared with mice that received other treatments. Postmortem analyses also showed that tumors treated with the nano-drug-carrying E. coli had the greatest infiltration of cancer-fighting immune cells among all treatments.

Zhaoting Li et al, Nanodrug-bacteria conjugates-mediated oncogenic collagen depletion enhances immune checkpoint blockade therapy against pancreatic cancer, Med (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.medj.2024.02.012

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Centipedes used in traditional Chinese medicine offer leads for kidney treatment

A venomous, 8-inch centipede may be the stuff of nightmares, but it could save the life of those affected by kidney disease. Researchers report in the Journal of Natural Products that the many-legged critter—used in traditional Chinese medicine—contains alkaloids that in cell cultures reduced inflammation and renal fibrosis, which both contribute to kidney disease.

Some 1,500 species of animals are used in traditional Chinese medicine, but little is known about many of the secondary metabolites their bodies produce for specialized functions such as immobilizing prey. The few compounds that have been studied, such as toad venom for cancer treatment, have proved to be fruitful leads for drug development.

The researchers 

decided to examine the secondary metabolites produced by the Chinese red-headed centipede (Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans). The venomous centipede has been used for thousands of years in treatments for conditions including epilepsy, tuberculosis, burns and cardiovascular disease.

The researchers mixed a sample of dried centipede powder with ethanol to extract numerous compounds from the animals and then separated and identified the constituents with techniques such as chromatography and spectrometry. The team found 12 new quinoline and isoquinoline alkaloids, including some with unusual molecular structures, along with a half dozen other alkaloids that had previously been detected in this species or in plants.

In cell cultures, some of the alkaloids showed anti-inflammatory behavior, while a portion also reduced renal fibrosis. This buildup of connective tissue is associated with chronic kidney disease and is stimulated by inflammation. Finally, the researchers identified a protein that plays a role in renal fibrosis and that was targeted by the most effective dual-function alkaloid. This information could provide a lead for developing treatments for kidney disease, according to the researchers.

Bin-Yuan Hu et al, Structurally Diverse Alkaloids with Anti-Renal-Fibrosis Activity from the Centipede Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans, Journal of Natural Products (2024). DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.4c00044

Genetics, not lack of oxygen, causes cerebral palsy in quarter of cases: Study

The world's largest study of cerebral palsy (CP) genetics has discovered genetic defects are most likely responsible for more than a quarter of cases in Chinese children, rather than a lack of oxygen at birth as previously thought.

The study, published in Nature Medicine, used modern genomic sequencing and found mutations were significantly higher in CP cases with birth asphyxia, indicating a lack of oxygen could be secondary to the underlying genetic defect. The results are consistent with smaller studies globally.

More than 1,500 Chinese children with CP were involved in this research project. 

24.5% of Chinese children in the study had rare genetic variations linked to cerebral palsy. This revelation mirrors  earlier findings in  Australian cerebral palsy cohort, where up to one-third of cases have genetic causes.

This research shows at least some babies who experience birth asphyxia and are diagnosed with CP may have improper brain development as a result of the underlying genetic variants rather than a lack of oxygen.

Crucially, clinically actionable treatments were found in 8.5% of cases with a genetic cause. It is exciting to see how genetic pathways to cerebral palsy inform tailored treatments for these individuals.

Cerebral palsy affects movement and posture and is the most common motor disability in children. The disorder is diagnosed in up to 2 per 1,000 children globally and is sometimes in association with epilepsy, autism and intellectual difficulties. Symptoms often emerge during infancy and early childhood and can range from mild to severe.

The research team identified 81 genes with causation mutations in the children with CP. These genes are known to play important roles in neural and embryonic development and may affect the molecular pathways responsible for respiration.

These results highlight the need for early genetic testing in children with cerebral palsy, especially those with risk factors like birth asphyxia, to ensure they receive the right medical care and treatment.

Yangong Wang et al, Exome sequencing reveals genetic heterogeneity and clinically actionable findings in children with cerebral palsy, Nature Medicine (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41591-024-02912-z

Mantle movements shape Earth's surface

The movement of tectonic plates shapes the rocky features of Earth's surface. Plates' convergence can form mountain ranges or ocean trenches, and their divergence can form oceanic ridges. But it's not just the plates themselves that influence Earth's topography. The mantle layer underneath exerts its own subtle influence, which can be seen even in places located far from tectonic plate edges, and is referred to as residual topography.

To better understand how the mantle affects topography,  researchers building on previous work focused on the oceans, created two new databases. The paper is published in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth.

One compiles 26,725 measurements of crust thickness around the globe, the largest such database to date, along with estimates of seismic velocity. The other contains laboratory analysis of seismic velocity as a function of temperature, density, and pressure. Together these measurements helped disentangle crustal influences on topography from mantle influences to identify residual topography.

The researchers found that differences in the temperature and chemical structure of the mantle can cause swells and basins in the landscape distinct from those that form at the edges of tectonic plates. These features can rise or fall by up to 2 kilometers and stretch for hundreds to thousands of kilometers—all within the interior of plates.

Some of the highest swells (about 2 kilometers), which are thought to correspond to locations where the mantle is particularly hot, can be found in the Afar–Yemen–Red Sea region, western North America, and Iceland. Some of the deepest basins (deeper than about 1.5 kilometers), where the mantle is thought to be cooler, are in areas near the Black, Caspian, and Aral seas, as well as in the East European Plain. This pattern of swells and basins may control—to some extent—the locations where significant erosion and sedimentary deposition occur.

These topographical features can develop slowly over millions of years, but they nonetheless control important geological processes. According to the researchers, these findings could help explain the existence of magmatism found far from plate boundaries. They also could help scientists understand the elusive effects of flow in Earth's mantle on the surface through geologic time.

Simon N. Stephenson et al, Continental Residual Topography Extracted From Global Analysis of Crustal Structure, Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth (2024). DOI: 10.1029/2023JB026735

Ice shelves fracture under weight of meltwater lakes, study shows

When air temperatures in Antarctica rise and glacier ice melts, water can pool on the surface of floating ice shelves, weighing them down and causing the ice to bend. Now, for the first time in the field, researchers have shown that ice shelves don't just buckle under the weight of meltwater lakes—they fracture.

As the climate warms and melt rates in Antarctica increase, this fracturing could cause vulnerable ice shelves to collapse, allowing inland glacier ice to spill into the ocean and contribute to sea level rise.

Ice shelves are important for the Antarctic Ice Sheet's overall health as they act to buttress or hold back the glacier ice on land. Scientists have predicted and modeled that surface meltwater loading could cause ice shelves to fracture, but no one had observed the process in the field, until now.

The new study, published in the Journal of Glaciology, may help explain how the Larsen B Ice Shelf abruptly collapsed in 2002. In the months before its catastrophic breakup, thousands of meltwater lakes littered the ice shelf's surface, which then drained over just a few weeks.

 Alison F. Banwell et al, Observed meltwater-induced flexure and fracture at a doline on George VI Ice Shelf, Antarctica, Journal of Glaciology (2024). DOI: 10.1017/jog.2024.31