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Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on September 3, 2024 at 8:58am

How hunger influences aversive learning in fruit flies

Internal states that animals experience while they are thirsty, hungry, sleepy or aggressive have been found to be linked with the combined activity of various neuromodulators and neurotransmitters. These chemical messengers can drastically change the excitability and functional connectivity of neurons, which in turn plays a role in shaping the animals' behaviour.

Past studies on Drosophila (small fruit flies) showed that energy homeostasis in these insects is regulated by various neurohormones/modulators, which impact their physiology and behavior in different ways. These include insulin-like peptides (dILPs) and adipokinetic hormone (AKH), hormones with the same functions as insulin and glucagon in mammals, respectively.

Researchers recently carried out a study investigating how these hunger-associated neurohormones influence the learning of associations between stimuli and unpleasant or negative outcomes (i.e., aversive learning) in fruit flies. Their paper, published in Neuron, shows that the hormone AKH plays a key role in modulating aversive reinforcement learning.  

Hungry animals need compensatory mechanisms to maintain flexible brain function, while modulation reconfigures circuits to prioritize resource seeking.

In Drosophila, hunger inhibits aversively reinforcing dopaminergic neurons (DANs) to permit the expression of food-seeking memories. Multitasking the reinforcement system for motivation potentially undermines aversive learning.

Aversive learning is an evolutionary process through which animals start to associate specific stimuli with unpleasant outcomes, after repeated negative experiences following the exposure to these stimuli. This often results in behaviors aimed at trying to avoid the stimulus and the experiences associated with it.

The researchers found that chronic hunger mildly enhances aversive learning and that satiated-baseline and hunger-enhanced learning require endocrine adipokinetic hormone (AKH) signaling.

The researchers' experiments revealed that AKH, the fly equivalent of glucagon, sets baseline and hunger-enhanced levels of aversive learning, acting through specific neurons that release the neurotransmitter octopamine. This neurotransmitter modulates the inputs sent to dopaminergic neurons involved in reinforcement aversive learning.

The findings of this recent study contribute to the understanding of how hunger affects aversive learning in Drosophila, specifically highlighting the key role of the neurohormone AKH. In the future, it could inspire further research aimed at validating the patterns observed by the researchers across other animal models.

Eleonora Meschi et al, Compensatory enhancement of input maintains aversive dopaminergic reinforcement in hungry Drosophila, Neuron (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.04.035

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Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on September 2, 2024 at 8:31am

Study finds people are consistently and confidently wrong about those with opposing views

Despite being highly confident that they can understand the minds of people with opposing viewpoints, the assumptions humans make about others are often wrong, according to new research from the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience (IoPPN).

"Poorer representation of minds underpins less accurate mental state inference for out-groups" was published in Scientific Reports. The research explores the psychology behind why people come to the wrong conclusions about others, and suggests how society could start to change that.

Analysis of the data found that, even though participants were prepared to seek out as much—and often more—information about someone they disagreed with, their predictions were consistently incorrect, even after receiving further information about them.

Participants demonstrated a high degree of confidence in their answers, suggesting that participants thought they had a good understanding of the people in their out-group, despite this not being the case. In comparison, participants could consistently make accurate predictions about those in their in-group with less information.

The study shows that people have a good understanding of people who are similar to themselves and their confidence in their understanding is well-placed. However, our understanding of people with different views to our own is demonstrably poor. The more confident we are that we can understand them, the more likely it is that we are wrong. People have poor awareness of their inability to understand people that differ from themselves.

There are clear consequences to this lack of awareness, and we have seen countless real-world examples.

These misconceptions are often fueled by disinformation on social media or echoed back to them by others within their in-group.

While there is no quick fix in a real-world setting, if everyone interacted with a more diverse group of people, talked directly to them and got to know them, it's likely we would understand each other better. Conversations with people who hold different beliefs could help challenge our incorrect assumptions about each other.

Now do you understand why you think scientists are wrong? Because they see and talk about reality, not about your imaginations.

Bryony Payne et al, Poorer representation of minds underpins less accurate mental state inference for out-groups, Scientific Reports (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-67311-3

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on September 2, 2024 at 8:08am

This finding challenges the traditional view of educational achievement as determined largely by intelligence. Instead, the study suggests that a child's emotional and behavioral makeup, influenced by both genes and environment, plays a crucial role in their educational journey.

While genetics undoubtedly contributes to non-cognitive skills, the study also emphasizes the importance of environment. By comparing siblings, researchers were able to isolate the impact of shared family environment from genetic factors.

The researchers found that while family-wide processes play a significant role, the increasing influence of non-cognitive genetics on academic achievement remained evident even within families. This suggests that children may actively shape their own learning experiences based on their personality, dispositions, and abilities, creating a feedback loop that reinforces their strengths.

The findings of this study have profound implications for education. By recognizing the critical role of non-cognitive skills, schools can develop targeted interventions to support students' emotional and social development alongside their academic learning.

Education system world wide has traditionally focused on cognitive development. It's time to rebalance that focus and give equal importance to nurturing non-cognitive skills. By doing so, we can create a more inclusive and effective learning environment for all students, say the researchers.

Genetic associations between noncognitive skills and academic achievement over development, Nature Human Behaviour (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41562-024-01967-9

Part 2

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on September 2, 2024 at 8:02am

I wrote in my article "Intelligence Redefined" that apart from intelligence, other things like  ....  are equally  important for a person's academic success.

Now science has provided evidence for my argument.

 Non-cognitive skills: DNA-based analyses suggest a hidden key to academic success

A new Nature Human Behaviour study , has revealed that non-cognitive skills, such as motivation and self-regulation, are as important as intelligence in determining academic success. These skills become increasingly influential throughout a child's education, with genetic factors playing a significant role.

The research, conducted in collaboration with an international team of experts, suggests that fostering non-cognitive skills alongside cognitive abilities could significantly improve educational outcomes.

This new research challenges the long-held assumption that intelligence is the primary driver of academic achievement. The researchers found compelling evidence that non-cognitive skills—such as grit, perseverance, academic interest, and value attributed to learning—are not only significant predictors of success but that their influence grows stronger over time.
The study, which followed over 10,000 children from age 7 to 16 in England and Wales, employed a combination of twin studies and DNA-based analyses to examine the complex interplay between genes, environment, and academic performance.

One of the most striking findings is the increasing role of genetics in shaping non-cognitive skills and their impact on academic achievement. By analyzing DNA, researchers constructed a "polygenic score" for non-cognitive skills, essentially a genetic snapshot of a child's predisposition towards these skills.

They discovered that genetic effects associated with non-cognitive skills become increasingly predictive of academic achievement over the school years. In fact, their effect nearly doubles between the ages of 7 and 16. 

 By the end of compulsory education, genetic dispositions towards non-cognitive skills were equally as important as those related to cognitive abilities in predicting academic success.

Part 1

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on September 1, 2024 at 2:38pm

Racing may slightly increase the chances a runner will suffer a rare event like heatstroke or cardiac arrest.
Runners and athletes are at reduced risk of having not only cardiac arrest, but all forms of heart disease compared to non-runners.
Taking care will reduce these chances of falling into dangerous situations.

Part 2

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Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on September 1, 2024 at 2:35pm

A warming climate can make running deadly

A normal routine of runners can suddenly become deadly because of excess heat.

The body temperatures can cross 105 - sometimes can get as high as 107 degrees (41.6 Celsius).

Heat stroke is a deadly illness associated with extreme heat, and climate change is worsening the risk. 

Exertional heatstroke happens during exercise when the body can't properly cool, rising above 104 degrees (40 Celsius) and triggering a central nervous system problem such as fainting or blacking out. It can be effectively treated by rapidly cooling a victim, but lots of races lack the resources or expertise to do it. And many runners, in a culture that esteems grit and suffering, may ignore conditions that put them at risk.

Muscles can break down, releasing proteins that damage kidneys. The lining of the digestive system may weaken and leak bacteria. Brain cells may die. It can damage organs and, ultimately, kill.

Races are   magnets for heatstroke. At several miles, they are long enough to give the body time to heat up dangerously and short enough that many runners are pushing hard. Odds are good that some who haven't trained to acclimate to hot weather, or show up dehydrated,  become simply more vulnerable.

And  problem is lots of races don't have the equipment or expertise to offer the right lifesaving care.

Getting victims into a tub of ice water is the best way to quickly cool them. And it needs to happen fast, with quick diagnoses to treat runners on the spot. Medical staff need rectal thermometers to gauge temperature when skin can be deceptively cool.

But based on over 3,000 cases researchers have tracked, if someone's temp gets under 104 within 30 minutes of the presentation of heatstroke, no one has ever died.

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on September 1, 2024 at 2:13pm

Home stress testing

Modern day life style increases stress. Ignoring these high stress levels can lead to serious health issues like depression and Alzheimer's disease. So what if checking your stress levels at home became the norm? Thanks to nanoparticles, this possibility is drawing closer.

In a new study published in the journal Talanta, a team of researchers have produced a new and improved detector that can accurately measure levels of cortisol—a stress biomarker in the blood.

This is a  cost-effective, easily reproducible, and easy-to-use point-of-care testing device that accurately measures cortisol levels.

The devices currently available generally contain electrodes that have poor stability in different and fluctuating conditions, such as changing pH and temperature. This gives the devices a short shelf life and makes them difficult to produce commercially.

In this study, researchers used iridium oxide nanoparticles to cover the silver layer. This modification improves the stability, sensitivity and reproducibility of cortisol detection in point-of-care devices.

Tong Ji et al, Iridium oxide-modified reference screen-printed electrodes for point-of-care portable electrochemical cortisol detection, Talanta (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.126776

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on September 1, 2024 at 10:42am

Home stress testing

Modern day life style increases stress. Ignoring these high stress levels can lead to serious health issues like depression and Alzheimer's disease. So what if checking your stress levels at home became the norm? Thanks to nanoparticles, this possibility is drawing closer.

In a new study published in the journal Talanta, a team of researchers have produced a new and improved detector that can accurately measure levels of cortisol—a stress biomarker in the blood.

This is a  cost-effective, easily reproducible, and easy-to-use point-of-care testing device that accurately measures cortisol levels.

The devices currently available generally contain electrodes that have poor stability in different and fluctuating conditions, such as changing pH and temperature. This gives the devices a short shelf life and makes them difficult to produce commercially.

In this study, researchers used iridium oxide nanoparticles to cover the silver layer. This modification improves the stability, sensitivity and reproducibility of cortisol detection in point-of-care devices.

Tong Ji et al, Iridium oxide-modified reference screen-printed electrodes for point-of-care portable electrochemical cortisol detection, Talanta (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.126776

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on September 1, 2024 at 10:33am

Astronomers spot merging galaxies from 12.8 billion years ago

Astronomers have spotted a pair of galaxies in the act of merging 12.8 billion years ago. The characteristics of these galaxies indicate that the merger will form a monster galaxy, one of the brightest types of objects in the universe.

These results, which have been detailed in The Astrophysical Journal, are important for understanding the early evolution of galaxies and black holes in the early universe.

Quasars are bright objects powered by matter falling into a supermassive black hole at the center of a galaxy in the early universe. The most accepted theory is that when two gas-rich galaxies merge to form a single larger galaxy, the gravitational interaction of the two galaxies causes gas to fall towards the supermassive black hole in one or both of the galaxies, causing quasar activity.

To test this theory, an international team of researchers led by Takuma Izumi used the ALMA (Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array) radio telescope to study the earliest known pair of close quasars.
This pair was discovered by Yoshiki Matsuoka, at Ehime University in Japan, in images taken by the Subaru Telescope. Located in the direction of the constellation Virgo, this pair of quasars existed during the first 900 million years of the universe.

The pair is dim, indicating that the quasars are still in the early stages of their evolution. The ALMA observations mapped the host galaxies of the quasars and showed that the galaxies are linked by a "bridge" of gas and dust. This indicates that the two galaxies are in fact merging.

The ALMA observations also allowed the team to measure the amount of gas, the material for new star formation. The team found that the two galaxies are very rich in gas, suggesting that in addition to more vigorous quasar activity in the future, the merger will also trigger a rapid increase in star formation, known as a "starburst."

The combination of starburst activity and vigorous quasar activity is expected to create a super-bright object in the early universe known as a monster galaxy.

Takuma Izumi et al, Merging Gas-rich Galaxies That Harbor Low-luminosity Twin Quasars at z = 6.05: A Promising Progenitor of the Most Luminous Quasars, The Astrophysical Journal (2024). DOI: 10.3847/1538-4357/ad57c6

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on September 1, 2024 at 10:22am

However, it remains possible that other factors, such as genetic profile or lifestyle, might modulate the effects of clonal hematopoiesis, and future studies are planned to examine this possibility.

In the new study published in the European Heart Journal, the CNIC group, in partnership with the team led by Dr. Pradeep Natarajan at the Broad Institute in Boston, show that the adverse effects of TET2 mutations on cardiovascular health can be alleviated by treatment with the anti-inflammatory drug colchicine.

The  team demonstrated that administration of colchicine to animals with TET2 mutations slows the development of atherosclerosis to a rate similar to that seen in non-mutated animals. In parallel, the Broad Institute scientists showed that individuals with TET2 mutations and who had been treated with colchicine for other conditions had a lower risk of myocardial infarction than untreated patients with similar mutations.

Unidirectional association of clonal hematopoiesis with atherosclerosis development, Nature Medicine (2024). DOI: 10.1038/s41591-024-03213-1

M A Zuriaga et al, Colchicine prevents accelerated atherosclerosis development in TET2-mutant clonal hematopoiesis, European Heart Journal (2023). DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehad655.3264

Part 2

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