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Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on October 2, 2021 at 12:43pm

The Scientific Problem of Consciousness

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on October 2, 2021 at 12:28pm

During COVID-19, many hospitals find themselves short on ventilators. During the pandemic, many will require the use of a ventilator for an average of 15 days, while a few people will need significantly more time. Ventilators aren’t something that a person can use for one day and then get discharged. The first wave of people requiring ventilators will receive them immediately. However, someone whose lungs fail the next day may need to survive for two weeks without one.

https://next.massivesci.com/articles/rectal-breathing-oxygen-enema-...

Part 3

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on October 2, 2021 at 12:28pm

While we often consider the butt as the exit for waste in our body, it is also an entryway with lifesaving potential. After all, humans and plenty of other mammals can absorb medications rectally. That’s because there’s a lot of blood vessels in the area, allowing medicine easy entry. 

But medicine is specially designed to maximize absorption in the body. Oxygen doesn’t have nearly as easy a path towards entry into the bloodstream through the rectum because of the mucus membrane mammals have on the intestines. There are also important anatomical differences between our intestines and those of fish that already harness this ability. Animals that can breathe through their butts, like loaches, had a much thinner epithelium in their guts and a lot less mucus. During the course of early development, a butt-breathing genetic pathway is turned on that helps dictate the structure of the intestine. When it’s all said and done, the posterior end of the intestine is equipped with all the structures necessary for respiration (and gas exchange).

Would this mucus prevent oxygenation in mice? In the first experiment, researchers used a model of oxygen deprivation in mice, preventing them from breathing through their lungs. The control group didn’t receive any intestinal ventilation, one group received oxygen through an anal catheter, and the final group had the mucus layer on their intestines “scrubbed” before receiving anal ventilation.

Remarkably, the mice supplied oxygen through their anus had elevated oxygen levels in their blood. The final group that also had their intestinal mucus scrubbed fared even better, surviving the longest in the low-oxygen conditions — five times as long as the control group. This experiment proved that there is potential for mammals to breathe through their butt, however, the mucus layer covering the intestinal epithelial cells makes it more difficult.

In a clinical setting, scrubbing the mucus off of a person’s intestines isn’t really feasible, and doesn’t sound like a pleasant experience. But using a method akin to an enema may work, by infusing safe, oxygenated liquid through the butt. This liquid, called perfluorodecalin, could safely store and deliver oxygen via an enema. Due to the properties of this liquid, it doesn’t need to scrub the mucus off of the intestines, meaning less discomfort and abrasion. Oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream while carbon dioxide diffuses out. Since it holds a lot of oxygen and carbon dioxide very easily, it is also delivered safely to the lungs, and is already in clinical use. 

Part2

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on October 2, 2021 at 12:26pm

A breathing tube through the butt could be an alternative to mechanical ventilators

Inspired by animals that breathe through their butts, scientists show that mammals can also harness the incredible breathing ability of our butts.

To survive in extreme low-oxygen conditions deep in the ocean, fish and other creatures have developed remarkable adaptations. For example, sea spiders, loaches, and catfish evolved the ability to breathe through their butts. And they might not be the only butt breathers out there. 

A recent study in the journal Med now suggests that mammals, humans included, may be able to breathe through their rear ends as well. Mice, rats, and pigs could all stave off the devastating effects of oxygen deprivation if given an oxygen enema. But could this new method provide temporary oxygen while a patient awaits a ventilator?

Part1

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on October 2, 2021 at 9:27am

'Fight or flight' – unless internal clocks are disrupted, study in mice shows

For humans and animals, many aspects of normal behavior and physiology rely on the proper functioning of the body's circadian clocks.

Here's how it's supposed to work: Your brain sends signals to your body to release different hormones at certain times of the day. For example, you get a boost of the hormone cortisol—nature's built-in alarm system—right before you usually wake up.

But hormone release actually relies on the interconnected activity of clocks in more than one part of the brain. New research from Washington University in St. Louis shows how daily release of glucocorticoids depends on coordinated clock-gene and neuronal activity rhythms in neurons found in two parts of the hypothalamus, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) and paraventricular nucleus (PVN).

The new study, conducted with freely behaving mice, is published Oct. 1 in Nature Communications.

Normal behavior and physiology depends on a near 24-hour circadian release of various hormones. When hormone release is disrupted, it can lead to numerous pathologies, including affective disorders like anxiety and depression and metabolic disorders like diabetes and obesity.

The daily timing of hormone release is controlled by the SCN. Located in the hypothalamus, just above where the optic nerves cross, neurons in the SCN send daily signals that are decoded in other parts of the brain that talk to the adrenal glands and the body's endocrine system.

"Cortisol in humans (corticosterone in mice) is more typically known as a stress hormone involved in the 'fight or flight' response. But the stress of waking up and preparing for the day is one of the biggest regular stressors to the body. Having a huge amount of this glucocorticoid released right as you wake up seems to help you gear up for the day.

Circadian neurons in the paraventricular nucleus entrain and sustain daily rhythms in glucocorticoids, Nature Communications (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25959-9

https://phys.org/news/2021-10-flight-internal-clocks-disrupted-mice...

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on October 1, 2021 at 9:45am

Two things affect the net sunlight reaching the Earth: the Sun's brightness and the planet's reflectivity. The changes in Earth's albedo observed by the researchers did not correlate with periodic changes in the Sun's brightness, so that means changes in Earth's reflectiveness are caused by something on the Earth.

Specifically, there has been a reduction of bright, reflective low-lying clouds over the eastern Pacific Ocean in the most recent years, according to satellite measurements made as part of NASA's Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) project.

That's the same area, off the west coasts of North and South America, where increases in sea surface temperatures have been recorded because of the reversal of a climatic condition called the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, with likely connections to global climate change.

The dimming of the Earth can also be seen in terms of how much more solar energy is being captured by Earth's climate system. Once this significant additional solar energy is in Earth's atmosphere and oceans, it may contribute to global warming , as the extra sunlight is of the same magnitude as the total anthropogenic climate forcing over the last two decades.

P. R. Goode et al, Earth's Albedo 1998–2017 as Measured From Earthshine, Geophysical Research Letters (2021). DOI: 10.1029/2021GL094888

https://phys.org/news/2021-09-earth-dimming-due-climate.html?utm_so...

Part 2

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on October 1, 2021 at 9:44am

Earth is dimming due to climate change

Warming ocean waters have caused a drop in the brightness of the Earth, according to a new study.

Researchers used decades of measurements of earthshine—the light reflected from Earth that illuminates the surface of the Moon—as well as satellite measurements to find that there has been a significant drop in Earth's reflectance, or albedo, over the past two decades.

The Earth is now reflecting about half a watt less light per square meter than it was 20 years ago, with most of the drop occurring in the last three years of earthshine data, according to the new study in the AGU journal Geophysical Research Letters, which publishes high-impact, short-format reports with immediate implications spanning all Earth and space sciences.

That's the equivalent of 0.5% decrease in the Earth's reflectance. Earth reflects about 30% of the sunlight that shines on it.

Part 1

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on October 1, 2021 at 8:38am

The more finely the story was shuffled, the more the fractal structures of the network patterns were disrupted.

Since the disruptions in those fractal patterns seemed directly linked with how well people could make sense of the story, this finding may provide clues about how our brain structures work together to understand what is happening in the narrative."

The fractal network patterns were surprisingly similar across people: patterns from one group could be used to accurately estimate what part of the story another group was listening to.

The team also studied which brain structures were interacting to produce these fractal patterns. The results show that the smallest scale (first-order) interactions occurred in brain regions that process raw sounds. Second-order interactions linked these raw sounds with speech processing regions, and third-order interactions linked sound and speech areas with a network of visual processing regions. The largest-scale (fourth-order) interactions linked these auditory and visual sensory networks with brain structures that support high-level thinking. According to the researchers, when these networks organize at multiple scales, this may show how the brain processes raw sensory information into complex thought—from raw sounds, to speech, to visualization, to full-on understanding.

The researchers' computational framework can also be applied to areas beyond neuroscience and the team has already begun using an analogous approach to explore interactions in stock prices and animal migration patterns.

High-level cognition during story listening is reflected in high-order dynamic correlations in neural activity patterns, Nature Communications (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25876-x

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-09-fractal-brain-networks-compl...

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on October 1, 2021 at 8:38am

How complex thoughts take place in the brain

Understanding how the human brain produces complex thought is daunting given its intricacy and scale. The brain contains approximately 100 billion neurons that coordinate activity through 100 trillion connections, and those connections are organized into networks that are often similar from one person to the next. A Dartmouth study has found a new way to look at brain networks using the mathematical notion of fractals, to convey communication patterns between different brain regions as people listened to a short story. The results are published in Nature Communications.

To generate our thoughts, our brains create  amazing lightning storm of connection patterns. The patterns look beautiful, but they are also incredibly complicated. Our mathematical framework lets us quantify how those patterns relate at different scales, and how they change over time.

In the field of geometry, fractals are shapes that appear similar at different scales. Within a fractal, shapes and patterns are repeated in an infinite cascade, such as spirals comprised of smaller spirals that are in turn comprised of still-smaller spirals, and so on. Dartmouth's study shows that brain networks organize in a similar way: patterns of brain interactions are mirrored simultaneously at different scales. When people engage in complex thoughts, their networks seem to spontaneously organize into fractal-like patterns. When those thoughts are disrupted, the fractal patterns become scrambled and lose their integrity.

The researchers developed a mathematical framework that identifies similarities in network interactions at different scales or "orders." When brain structures do not exhibit any consistent patterns of interaction, the team referred to this as a "zero-order" pattern. When individual pairs of brain structures interact, this is called a "first-order" pattern. "Second-order" patterns refer to similar patterns of interactions in different sets of brain structures, at different scales. When patterns of interaction become fractal— "first-order" or higher— the order denotes the number of times the patterns are repeated at different scales.

The study shows that when people listened to an audio recording of a 10-minute story, their brain networks spontaneously organized into fourth-order network patterns. However, this organization was disrupted when people listened to altered versions of the recording. For instance, when the story's paragraphs were randomly shuffled, preserving some but not all of the story's meaning, people's brain networks displayed only second-order patterns. When every word of the story was shuffled, this disrupted all but the lowest level (zero-order) patterns.

Part 1

Comment by Dr. Krishna Kumari Challa on October 1, 2021 at 8:27am

Study unveils the quantum nature of the interaction between photons and free electrons

For several decades, physicists have known that light can be described simultaneously as a wave and a particle. This fascinating 'duality' of light is due to the classical and quantum nature of electromagnetic excitations, the processes through which electromagnetic fields are produced.

So far, in all experiments in which light interacts with free electrons, it has been described as a wave. Researchers at Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, however, have recently gathered the first experimental evidence revealing the quantum nature of the interaction between photons and free electrons. Their findings, published in Science, could have important implications for future research investigating photons and their interaction with free electrons.

Raphael Dahan et al, Imprinting the quantum statistics of photons on free electrons, Science (2021). DOI: 10.1126/science.abj7128

Ofer Kfir, Entanglements of Electrons and Cavity Photons in the Strong-Coupling Regime, Physical Review Letters (2019). DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.103602

Valerio Di Giulio et al, Probing quantum optical excitations with fast electrons, Optica (2019). DOI: 10.1364/OPTICA.6.001524

https://phys.org/news/2021-09-unveils-quantum-nature-interaction-ph...

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